AZA 5.indb - All`Insegna Del Giglio

Transcript

CONTRIBUTORS
C ontributors
Francesca Alhaique
Dipartimento di Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Sezione Antropologia, Università di Roma “La Sapienza”, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Roma, Italy.
Gilberto Artioli
Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra “A. Desio”, Università di Milano, Via
Botticelli 23, 20133 Milano, Italy. ([email protected])
Ebrahim Saleh Azzebi
Department of Antiquities, Tripoli, Libya.
Giovanna Bosi
Laboratorio di Palinologia e Paleobotanica, Dipartimento del Museo di
Paleobiologia e dell’Orto Botanico, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia,
Viale Caduti in Guerra 127, 41100 Modena, Italy.
Silvia Bruni
Dipartimento di Chimica Inorganica, Metallorganica e Analitica, Università
degli Studi di Milano, Via G. Venezian 21, 20133, Milano, Italy.
Fabrizio Buldrini
Roberto Castelli
Via Tor Paluzzi 41, 00040 Albano Laziale (RM), Italy. ([email protected])
Mauro Cremaschi
Mangiagalli 34, 20133 Milano, Italy. ([email protected])
Emanuela Cristiani
Dottorato di Ricerca in Archeologia, Università di Roma “La Sapienza”,
Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Roma, Italy. ([email protected])
Monica Dapiaggi
Botticelli 23, 20133 Milano, Italy. ([email protected])
Fabrizio Felici
Via Domenico Modugno 8, 00125 Roma, Italy. ([email protected])
Luisa Forlani
Dipartimento di Biologia Evoluzionistica Sperimentale, Università di Bologna,
Viale Irnerio 42, 40126 Bologna, Italy.
Maria Carmela Gatto
Località La Fiorella 18, 00015 Monterotondo, Italy. ([email protected])
Vittoria Guglielmi
Dipartimento di Chimica Inorganica, Metallorganica e Analitica, Università
degli Studi di Milano, Via G. Venezian 21, 20133, Milano, Italy.
Giuseppe Guida
Istituto Centrale per il Restauro, Piazza S. Francesco di Paola 9, 00184 Roma,
Italy.
Letizia Laddaga
Botticelli 23, 20133 Milano, Italy.
Cristina Lemorini
Dipartimento di Scienze Storiche, Archeologiche e Antropologiche dell’Antichità, Università di Roma “La Sapienza”, Via Palestro 63, 00185 Roma,
Italy. ([email protected])
Mario Liverani
Anna Maria Mercuri
Lucia Mori
Dipartimento di Scienze Storiche, Archeologiche e Antropologiche dell’Antichità, Università di Roma “La Sapienza”, Via Palestro 63, 00185 Roma, Italy.
XI
CONTRIBUTORS
Massimiliano Munzi
Comune di Roma, Sovraintendenza ai Beni Culturali, Via del Teatro di Marcello 5, 00186 Roma, Italy. ([email protected])
Caterina Ottomano
Via Lorenzo Costa 2 / 6A, 16136 Genova, Italy. ([email protected])
Cristiano Putzolu
Via Anello del Sole 27, 33074 Fontanafredda (PN), Italy. ([email protected])
Giuliana Trevisan Grandi
Massimo Vidale
Istituto Centrale per il Restauro, Piazza S. Francesco di Paola 9, 00184 Roma,
Italy.
Daniela Zampetti
XII
LIST OF FIGURES
List of Figures
Figure 1.1, p. 3 – Map of Central Sahara, with location of
the Wadi Tanezzuft-Akakus area (M. Liverani; L. De
Ninno).
Figure 1.2, p. 6 – Satellite image of the Wadi Tanezzuft (M.
Liverani; R. Castelli).
Figure 1.3, p. 7 – Aghram Nadharif, general view.
Figure 1.4, p. 8 – Ikonos satellite image of Aghram Nadharif
and surroundings (M. Liverani; R. Castelli).
Figure 1.5, p. 9 – The cemetery of Aghram Nadharif, as
seen from the citadel, with the Akakus in the background.
Figure 1.6, p. 9 – Ikonos satellite image of Aghram Nadharif.
Figure 1.7, p. 9 – Remains of a tower, from inside.
Figure 2.1, p. 14 – Geological cross-section of the Tanezzuft
Valley in correspondence with the Ghat oasis. (1) Tassili sandstone (Silurian); (2) Tanezzuft shales (Upper
Silurian); (3) Akakus sandstone (Devonian); (4) gravel
terrace (Pleistocene); (5) red dunes (Pleistocene); (6)
slope deposits (Pleistocene); (7) swamp deposits, Unit
1, and (8) gravel, Unit 2 (Early-Middle Holocene);
(9) Alluvium, Unit 3 (Middle-Late Holocene); (10)
Yellow dune formation, Unit 5 (Late Holocene) (M.
Cremaschi).
Figure 2.2, p. 14 – Stratigraphic sequences of the Holocene
deposits in the Barkat-Ghat area: (1) aeolian sand,
Unit 5, Late Holocene; (2) swamp deposits, Unit
1, Early-Middle Holocene; (3) alluvium, Unit 3,
Middle-Late Holocene; (4) stratified and massive,
clast supported, gravel, Unit 2, Early Holocene; (5)
weathered and unweathered bedrock, Tanezzuft shales
(M. Cremaschi).
Figure 2.3, p. 16 – Garamantian sherd in situ in the alluvial
unit (Unit 3), NE of Ghat.
Figure 2.4, p. 18 – Cross-section of the Barkat Oasis. (1) Tassili sandstone (Silurian); (2) Tanezzuft shales (Upper
Silurian); (3) Akakus sandstone (Devonian); (4) swamp
deposits, Unit 1 (Early-Middle Holocene); (5) gravel,
Unit 2 (Early-Middle Holocene); (6) alluvium, Unit
3 (Late Holocene); (7) sub-recent deposits of Wadi
Tanezzuft, Unit 4 (Late Holocene); (8) Yellow dunes,
Unit 5 (Late Holocene) (M. Cremaschi).
Figure 2.5, p. 18 – A tethering stone on the edge of the
oasis.
Figure 2.6, p. 19 – The Garamantian fort at Esseyen.
Figure 2.7, p. 19 – The stratigraphy of the test pit at the base of
the Aghram Nadharif citadel: (1) cemented dung; (2)
aeolian sand; (3) anthropogenic debris discarded from
the citadel; (4) top of the alluvium (M. Cremaschi).
Figure 3.1, p. 23 – The cemetery of Kokaman (Ghat), general view.
Figure 4.1, p. 26 – Ikonos satellite image of the Barkat oasis,
with location of the cemeteries (R. Castelli).
Figure 4.2, p. 27 – Directional distribution of the tumuli
around the Barkat Oasis (R. Castelli).
Figure 5.1, p. 31 – Plan of Aghram Nadharif, as surveyed in
1999 (G. Bertolani, S. di Lernia, and M. Liverani).
Figure 5.2, p. 32 – Map of Aghram Nadharif, based on the
2001 survey (C. Putzolu).
Figure 5.3, p. 32 – Arbitrary division into sectors (C. Putzolu).
Figure 5.4, p. 33 – Sector 1: (a) Surveyed structures; (b)
Hypothetical reconstruction (C. Putzolu).
Figure 5.13, p. 39 – The slope map of the site (darker =
steeper); the SE ramp is indicated by the arrow (C.
Putzolu).
Figure 5.14, p. 39 – Hypothetical general reconstruction of
Aghram Nadharif (C. Putzolu).
Figure 6.1, p. 42 – Rock art and topography: distribution of
the Akakus rock art sites between the wadi bottom
and terrace (S. Biagetti).
Figure 6.2, p. 42 – Site 02 / 46 located in a wadi bottom.
Figure 6.3, p. 44 – ‘Acrobat’ and chariot at flying gallop from
Ti-n-Abrukin.
Figure 6.4, p. 44 – Goats and cattle from site 01 / 184.
Figure 6.5, p. 44 – Cow in dark red, reminiscent of a zebu,
from site 01 / 184.
Figure 6.6, p. 45 – Barbary sheep from site 02/111.
Figure 6.7, p. 45 – Chariot at flying gallop from Ti-n-Afozzijar-t.
Figure 6.8, p. 46 – Red seated figure, perhaps a musician,
from site 04 / 63.
Figure 6.9, p. 46 – Dromedary carved over some Bitriangularstyle figures, from site 02 / 4B.
Figure 6.10, p. 47 – Battle scene from site 02 / 46.
Figure 6.11, p. 47 – Warrior with spear and shield, from
site 02 / 52.
Figure 6.12, p. 47 – Tumulus, beyond site 01 / 183.
Figure 6.13, p. 47 – Carved bovid from site 02 / 15.
Figure 7.1, p. 52 – The residential unit AN1-3, general view
from the W with lane AN2 in the foreground.
Figure 7.2, p. 52 – The residential unit AN1-3 and lane AN2,
general view from the E.
Figure 7.3, p. 53 – Plan of AN1-2-3: (a) with n. of rooms, n.
of walls and other features, sections; (b) with elevations
(G. Bertolani; C. Putzolu).
Figure 7.4, p. 54 – The outer room AN1, general view from
the N.
Figure 7.5, p. 55 – The outer room AN1, general view from
the E, with lane AN2 in the background.
Figure 7.6, p. 56-57 – Front view of walls in AN1-2-3: (a)
AN1.w1; (b) AN1-3.w2; (c) AN1.w3; (d) AN1-3.w4;
(e) AN3.w1; (f) AN3.w3; (g) AN2.w3 (C. Putzolu).
Figure 7.7, p. 59 – AN1, extent of floor f1 in the S corner
and in the central area.
Figure 7.8, p. 59 – AN1, storage pit p3 with intrusion of
collapsed stones.
Figure 7.9, p. 59 – AN1, platform b1 from the E.
Figure 7.10, p. 60 – AN1 before excavation, w4 from the N.
Figure 7.11, p. 62 – Sections in AN1-2-3: (a) Section a-a' in
AN1-2-3; (b) Section b-b' in AN1; (c) Section c-c' in
AN3 (M. Liverani; C. Putzolu).
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 7.12, p. 63 – Plan of AN1 with location of finds (L.
Mori; C. Putzolu).
Figure 7.13, p. 63 – AN3, general view from the S, with
pit p1.
Figure 7.14, p. 65 – AN3, general view from the N, with
partitions s2 and s3.
Figure 7.15, p. 65 – AN3 before excavation: note layer 1
sloping down from the city wall towards the W.
Figure 7.16, p. 65 – AN3.2: stones and mud bricks from the
collapse layer.
Figure 7.17, p. 65 – AN3.2: collapsed stones inside s3.
Figure 7.18, p. 65 – AN3.3: collapsed bricks inside s2.
Mori; C. Putzolu).
Figure 7.20, p. 69 – AN2.f1 in the α area, under collapsed
stones of AN2.3 and above bedrock.
Figure 7.21, p. 69 – AN2.f1 in the d1 area.
Mori; C. Putzolu).
Figure 7.23, p. 70 – Plan of AN1-2-3 and AN20-21-22
with functional areas and circulation (M. Liverani;
C. Putzolu).
Figure 8.1, p. 74 – General view of AN21-22 looking west.
Figure 8.2, p. 76 – Plan of AN20-21-22: (a), with n. of rooms,
n. of walls and other features, sections; (b) with elevations (C. Putzolu).
Figure 8.3, p. 78 – The outer room AN22.
Figure 8.4, p. 79 – Front view of walls in AN20-22: (a) AN22.
w1; (b) AN22-21.w2; (c) AN22.w3; (d) AN22-21.w4;
(e) AN21.w1; (f) AN20.w1 (C. Putzolu).
Figure 8.5, p. 81 – Section a-a' in AN20-21-22 (M.C. Gatto;
C. Putzolu).
Figure 8.6, p. 81 – Detail of the sealing of AN22.p1 with the
impression of a wooden slab.
Figure 8.7, p. 82 – Plan of AN22 with location of finds (C.
Putzolu).
Putzolu).
Putzolu).
Figure 8.10, p. 87 – The lane AN2-20.
Figure 8.11, p. 88 – A mud brick in AN20.
Figure 9.1, p. 92 – Plan of AN26-27, with elevations, n. of
rooms, n. of walls and other features, sections (C.
Putzolu).
Figure 9.2, p. 92 – The inner area of AN26 during the excavation.
Figure 9.3, p. 93 – The outer slope of Aghram Nadharif in
the tower area.
Figure 9.4, p. 93 – The outer face of the tower with the
gate’s S buttress.
Figure 9.5, p. 94 – Two post-holes in AN26.
Figure 9.6, p. 94 – Section a-a' in AN26 (L. Mori; C. Putzolu).
Figure 9.7, p. 97 – Front view of the city wall: (a) part of the
outer wall; (b) the E tower (C. Putzolu).
Figure 9.8, p. 97 – Plan of the postern / tower complex (AN2627, AN4-24) with functional areas and circulation (M.
Liverani; C. Putzolu).
Figure 10.1, p. 100 – Plan of AN4-24: (a) with n. of rooms,
n. of walls and other features, sections; (b) with elevations (C. Putzolu).
Figure 10.2, p. 101 – AN24 floor to the E, with the area leading to AN23 characterized by the different elevation
of the bedrock.
Figure 10.3, p. 101 – Front view of walls in AN4-24: (a)
AN24.w1; (b) AN24.w2; (c) AN4.w1 (C. Putzolu).
Figure 10.4, p. 102 – AN24 bedrock floor to the W, with its
semicircular delimitation.
Figure 10.5, p. 103 – Sections in AN24: (a) Section a-a'; (b)
Section b-b' in AN24-4 (L. Mori; C. Putzolu).
Figure 10.6, p. 104 – AN24 layer2, collapse of wall w3.
Figure 10.7, p. 105 – Plan of AN24 with location of finds
(C. Putzolu).
Figure 10.8, p.107 – Plan of AN4 with location of finds (C.
Putzolu).
Figure 10.9, p. 108 – AN4 before excavation.
Figure 10.10, p. 108 – AN4 semicircular wall, with mudbrick collapse.
Figure 10.11, p. 108 – Pit AN4.p1, surrounded by postholes.
Figure 11.1, p. 114 – Plan of AN25, with elevations, n. of
rooms, n. of walls and other features, sections (C.
Putzolu).
Figure 11.2, p. 114 – AN25 after excavation.
Figure 11.3, p. 114 – Front view of AN25.w1 (C. Putzolu).
Figure 11.4, p. 115 – AN25.w2.
Figure 11.5, p. 115 – The pit AN25.p1.
Figure 11.6, p. 115 – The storage bin AN25.s1.
Figure 11.7, p. 116 – AN25 before excavation.
Figure 11.8, p. 117 – Sections in AN25: (a) Section a-a'
in AN25; (b) Section b-b' in AN24-25 (L. Mori; C.
Putzolu).
(C. Putzolu).
Figure 12.1, p. 122 – AN9-13 general view of the residential
unit.
walls and other features, sections; (b) with elevations
(C. Putzolu).
Figure 12.3, p. 123 – AN9-13, zenithal view.
AN9-13.w1; (b) AN9.w2; (c) AN9-13.w3; (d) AN9.
w4; (e) AN13.w2; (f) AN13.w4 (C. Putzolu).
Figure 12.5, p. 125 – AN9, the entrance (d2) with the slope
towards the centre of the room.
Figure 12.6, p. 125 – AN9, the partition s1: the mud-brick
wall from the W.
Figure 12.7, p. 125 – AN9, the partition s2, from above,
during excavation.
Figure 12.8, p. 126 – Sections in AN9-13: (a) Section a-a' in
AN9; (b) Section c-c' in AN9-13; (c) Section b-b' in
AN13 (M. Liverani; C. Putzolu).
Figure 12.9, p. 128 – AN9.s1, the burnt level above the
floor.
(C. Putzolu).
Figure 12.11, p. 129 – AN13, the pit (p1), with floor (f1)
not yet cleaned.
Figure 12.12, p. 129 – AN13, the fireplace (h1) with charcoal
from late reuse.
(C. Putzolu).
Figure 12.14, p. 133 – Plan of AN9-13, AN25 and AN5 / 7
with functional areas and circulation (M. Liverani;
C. Putzolu).
Figure 13.1, p. 136 – Plan of AN5 / 7-6: (a) with n. of rooms,
walls and other features, sections, first phase; (b) with
n. of rooms, walls and other features, sections, second
phase; (c) with elevations (C. Putzolu).
Figure 13.2, p. 137 – Zenithal view of AN5 / 7.
Figure 13.3, p. 137 – AN5 later floor.
Figure 13.4, p. 138 – Front view of walls in AN5 / 7-6: (a)
AN5 / 7-6.w1; (b) AN5 / 7.w2; (c) AN5-6.w3; (d)
AN5 / 7.w4; (e) AN6.w2; (f) AN6.w4 (C. Putzolu).
Figure 13.5, p. 139 – Detail of AN5.w2.
Figure 13.6, p. 139 – Pit AN5.p3.
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 13.7, p. 140 – Sections in AN5 / 7 and AN6: (a) Section a-a' in AN5 / 7; (b) Section b-b' in AN6 (L. Mori;
C. Putzolu).
Figure 13.8, p. 142 – Detail of door AN5.d1 in the medieval
settlement phase.
Figure 13.9, p. 144 – Zenithal view of AN6.
Figure 13.10, p. 144 – AN6 with a quern and a fragment of
a grinding stone on the floor.
Figure 13.11, p. 145 – Detail of hearth AN6.h1 and wall
w5.
Figure 13.12, p. 149 – Plan of AN5 / 7 with location of finds
(C. Putzolu).
(C. Putzolu).
Figure 14.1, p. 152 – The residential unit AN8-14, zenithal
view.
walls and other features, sections; (b) with elevations
(C. Putzolu).
AN14.w1; (b) AN14-8.w2; (c) AN14.w3; (d) AN148.w4; (e) AN8.w1; (f) AN8.w3 (C. Putzolu).
Figure 14.4, p. 155 – (a) AN14, benches b1 and b2 located
beside the ramp leading to a sort of ‘window’; (b)
detail of b1.
Figure 14.5, p. 155 – AN14 storage bins s1 and s2.
Figure 14.6, p. 156 – Sections in AN8-14: (a) N-S section a-a'
in AN14; (b) W-E section b-b' in AN6-8-14; (c) S-N
section c-c' in AN8 (L. Mori; C. Putzolu).
(C. Putzolu).
Putzolu).
Figure 14.9, p. 162 – Charcoal from a fire lit on the floor
of AN8.
Figure 14.10, p. 162 – Pit AN8.p1.
Figure 14.11, p. 162 – Mud-brick collapse in AN8.
Figure 14.12, p. 165 – Plan of AN8-14 and AN6 with functional areas and circulation: (a) first phase, (b) second
phase (L. Mori and M. Liverani; C. Putzolu).
Figure 14.13, p. 165 – The ramp leading from lane AN10
to the top of the city wall, and the surrounding buildings.
Figure 15.1, p. 168 – The residential unit AN11-12, general
view from the N.
Figure 15.2, p. 168 – The residential unit AN11-12, general
view from the W.
n. of walls and other features, sections; (b) with elevations (G. Bertolani; C. Putzolu).
Figure 15.4, p. 170 – The residential unit AN11-12, zenithal
view.
Figure 15.5, p. 170 – The inner room AN11, general view
from the N.
Figure 15.6, p. 171 – The inner room AN11, zenithal view.
AN11.w1; (b) AN11-12.w2; (c) AN11.w3; (d) AN1112.w4; (e) AN12.w1; (f) AN12.w3 (C. Putzolu).
Figure 15.8, p. 173 – AN11, the collapse of the central part
of the W wall, w3.
Figure 15.9, p. 174 – Plan of AN11 with location of pits
and post-holes in the early squatting phase (M. Liverani and C. Putzolu, based on A. Stoppiello and A.
Leone).
Figure 15.10, p. 174 – Plan of AN11 with location of pits and
post-holes in the late squatting phase (M. Liverani and
C. Putzolu, based on A. Stoppiello and A. Leone).
Figure 15.11, p. 178 – AN11, partition s1 during excavation.
Figure 15.12, p. 178 – AN11, partition s3 from the S.
Figure 15.13, p. 180 – Sections of AN11-12: (a) Section a-a'
in AN11-12; (b) Section b-b' in AN11; (c) Section c-c'
in AN11 (A. Stoppiello, M. Liverani; C. Putzolu).
Figure 15.14, p. 182 – AN11, inner section during excavation.
Figure 15.15, p. 182 – The outer courtyard AN12, general
view from the N.
Figure 15.16, p. 182 – AN12, remains of the W wall w3.
Figure 15.17, p. 183 – Map of AN11-12 with functional
areas and circulation (M. Liverani; C. Putzolu).
Figure 16.1, p. 186 – Plan of AN16-17-18-19: (a) with n.
of rooms, n. of walls and other features, sections; (b)
with elevations (C. Putzolu).
Figure 16.2, p. 187 – Modern dry-stone walls in AN16.
Figure 16.3, p. 188 – The outer face of the city wall, beyond AN16.
Figure 16.4, p. 188 – AN16, the bastion w2 from south,
before excavation.
Figure 16.5, p. 190 – Zenithal view of AN17-18-19.
Figure 16.6, p. 190 – AN17, detail of bin s3.
Figure 16.7, p. 191 – AN17, showing the remains of w8
against the entire elevation of w1.
Figure 16.8, p. 191 – AN18 (store s1) from west, with wall
w6 in foreground and the window through w1 in
background.
Figure 16.9, p. 191 – Front view of walls in AN17-18-19:
(a) AN17-18.w1; (b) AN19.w2; (c) AN19.w3; (d)
AN18-19.w4 (C. Putzolu).
Figure 16.10, p. 195 – Sections in AN16-17-18-19: (a) Section a-a' in AN16-17-19: (b) Section b-b' in AN17-18
(C. Ottomano, M. Liverani; C. Putzolu).
Figure 16.11, p. 197 – Reconstructed sketch-plan of the
first phase in AN16-17-18-19 (M. Liverani; C.
Putzolu).
Figure 16.12, p. 197 – Reconstructed sketch-plan of the
second phase in AN16-17-18-19, with functional
areas and circulation (M. Liverani; C. Putzolu).
Figure 16.13, p. 198 – Plan of AN17-18-19 with location
of finds (C. Putzolu).
Figure 17.1, p. 203 – Distribution map of the local pottery
(M.C. Gatto; C. Putzolu).
Figure 17.2, p. 211 – Types of rim shapes (M.C. Gatto; L.
De Ninno).
Figure 17.3, p. 212 – Types of base shapes: (a-c) rounded
base; (d-f) flat with rounded edges; (g-i) modelled
rim; (j) pointed base (M.C. Gatto; L. De Ninno).
Figure 17.4, p. 213 – Bowls of type BRS: (a-c) BRS1; (d-e)
BRS2; (f-g) BRS3 (M.C. Gatto; L. De Ninno).
Figure 17.5, p. 215 – Bowls of type BUS1 and BUS2: (a-b)
BUS1a; (c-d) BUS1b; (e) BUS2a; (f-g) BUS2b; (h-j)
BUS2c (M.C. Gatto; L. De Ninno).
Figure 17.6, p. 216 – Bowls of type BUS3: (a-c) BUS3a; (d-i)
BUS3b; (j-k) BUS3c (M.C. Gatto; L. De Ninno).
Figure 17.7, p. 217 – Bowls of type BUS3: (a-c) BUS3d; (d-g)
BUS3e; (h) BUS3f (M.C. Gatto; L. De Ninno).
Figure 17.8, p. 218 – Bowls of type BUS4: (a) BUS4a; (b-c)
BUS4b; (d) BUS4c (M.C. Gatto; L. De Ninno).
Figure 17.9, p. 219 – Platters: (a-d) PL1; (e-h) PL2 (M.C.
Gatto; L. De Ninno).
Figure 17.10, p. 222 – Handled pots of type HP1 (a-h)
(M.C. Gatto; L. De Ninno).
Figure 17.11, p. 222 – Handled pots of type HP2 (a-k)
(M.C. Gatto; L. De Ninno).
Figure 17.12, p. 226 – Jars of type JRS: (a-b) JRS1a; (c-d)
JRS1b; (e-g) JRS 1c (M.C. Gatto; L. De Ninno).
Figure 17.13, p. 227 – Jars of type JRL: (a-c) JRL1a; (d-g)
JRL1b; (h) JRL1c (M.C. Gatto; L. De Ninno).
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 17.14, p. 228 – Jars of type JRN1: (a-b) JRN1a; (c-f)
JRN1b; (g-i) JRN1c (M.C. Gatto; L. De Ninno).
Figure 17.15, p. 229 – Jars of type JRN2: (a-d) JRN2a; (e)
JRN2b; (f-g) JRN2c (M.C. Gatto; L. De Ninno).
Figure 17.16, p. 229 – Jars of type JRN3a (a-h) (M.C. Gatto;
L. De Ninno).
Figure 17.17, p. 230 – Jars of type JRN3b (a-i) (M.C. Gatto;
L. De Ninno).
Figure 17.18, p. 231 – Jars of type JRN3c (a-m) (M.C.
Gatto; L. De Ninno).
Figure 17.19, p. 232 – Jars of type JRN3: (a-b) JRN3d; (c)
JRN3e (M.C. Gatto; L. De Ninno).
Figure 17.20, p. 233 – Jars of type JRN4: (a-c) JRN4a; (d-e)
JRN4b (M.C. Gatto; L. De Ninno).
Figure 17.21, p. 234 – Jars of type JRN4: (a-c) JRN4c; (d)
JRN4d; (e-f) JRN4e (M.C. Gatto; L. De Ninno).
Figure 17.22, p. 234 – Lids (M.C. Gatto; L. De Ninno).
Figure 17.23, p. 235 – Percentage of potsherds within the
units (M.C. Gatto).
Figure 17.24, p. 235 – Percentage of diagnostic potsherds
within the units (M.C. Gatto).
Figure 18.1, p. 242 – Roman pottery, coarse ware: (a) R2, (b)
R3, (c) R4, (d) R5 (F. Felici; L. De Ninno).
Figure 18.2, p. 243 – Roman pottery, coarse ware, jugs and
bottles: (a) R6, (b) R7, (c) R8, (d) R9 (F. Felici; L.
De Ninno).
Figure 18.3, p. 244 – Roman pottery, unidentified closed
forms: (a) R10, (b) R13; amphorae: (c) R18, (d) R19,
(e) R20 (F. Felici; L. De Ninno).
Figure 18.4, p. 245 – Roman pottery, Tripolitanian amphorae: (a) R53, (b) R54, (c) R55-57, (d) R63 (F. Felici;
L. De Ninno).
Figure 18.5, p. 246 – Roman pottery, medium-seized
and small Tripolitanian amphorae: (a) R303, (b)
R304; unidentified African amphorae: (c) R311,
(d) R312, (e) R313; lamps: (f) R326 (F. Felici; L.
De Ninno).
Figure 18.6, p. 247 – Distribution map of the Roman pottery (F. Felici; C. Putzolu).
Figure 19.1, p. 254 – Archaeometry of the local pottery:
(a) Presence of calcium sulphates added as temper
to the ceramic paste in sample AN12 / 3 (left) and
AN22 / 3 (right). (b) SEM image of the carbonatesulphate association in sample AN22 / 3. (c) SEM
image of sample AN2 / 2, showing large amounts of
sub-rounded quartz temper inclusions (dark grey),
and a few accessory minerals (white). (d) SEM image
of sample AN12 / 3, showing a large anhydrite crystal
(light grey) in the upper right corner, an amphibole
grain (light grey) in the upper left corner, and a few
accessory minerals near the centre (G. Artioli, L.
Laddaga and M. Dapiaggi).
Figure 19.2, p. 256 – Archaeometry of the local pottery:
(a) SEM image of sample AN2 / 2, showing a small
sub-rounded quartz grain with diffuse barite inclusions (white). (b) SEM image of sample AN22 / 3,
showing an epidote inclusion (light grey) near
the centre, and accessory minerals (white) in the
left part of the image. (c) SEM image of sample
AN22 / 3, showing a large fragment composed of
polycrystalline quartz (grey matrix) and a number
of small mineral inclusions (white to light grey).
(d) SEM image of sample AN24 / 2, showing a large
fragment composed of polycrystalline quartz (grey
matrix) and a number of small mineral inclusions
(white to light grey). (e) SEM image of a grog
grain in sample AN6 / 1. The amorphous matrix
of the grain is a Na,K,Mg,Fe-containing silicoaluminate glass. Crystalline inclusions are quartz,
feldspar, and mica (G. Artioli, L. Laddaga and M.
Dapiaggi).
Figure 20.1, p. 261 – Upper grinding stones: (a) type Ia1;
(b-c) type Ia2; (e-f) type Ia3; (g-h) type Ia4; (i-j): type
Ia5; (k) type Ia6 (L. Mori; L. De Ninno).
Figure 20.2, p. 263 – Upper grinding stones: (a-b) type Ia7;
(c): type Ia8; (d-e) type Ib1; (f-g) type Ib2 (L. Mori;
L. De Ninno).
Figure 20.3, p. 265 – Pounders: (a-e) type Ic1; (f) type Ic2;
(g-i) type Ic3; (j-l) type Ic4; (m-n) type Ic5; (o) type
Ic1 with central cavity (L. Mori; L. De Ninno).
Figure 20.4, p. 266 – Pestles: (a-c) type Id1; (d-e) type Id1
var. bell-shaped; (f) type Id1 var. conical profile; (g-h)
Id2 (L. Mori; L. De Ninno).
Figure 20.5, p. 267 – Saddle-shaped grinding slabs (L. Mori;
L. De Ninno).
Figure 20.6, p. 268 – Different types of grinding slabs: (a-b)
type IIa1; (c-e) type IIa2; (f-h) type IIa3 (L. Mori;
L. De Ninno).
Figure 20.7, p. 270 – Querns and quern-mortars: (a) type
IIb1; (b) type IIb2, back reused as pitted anvil; (c-d)
type IIb2; (e) type IIc; (f) type IIc bifacial (L. Mori;
L. De Ninno).
Figure 20.8, p. 273 – Quern-mortar and pitted anvils: (a)
flat grinding slab and quern mortar; (b) fragment of
saddle-shaped grinding slab reused as pitted anvil;
(c-d) pitted anvils type IId.2a; (e-f) pitted anvils type
IId.1a (L. Mori; L. De Ninno).
Figure 20.9, p. 274 – Different types of upper-active stone
tools.
Figure 20.10, p. 275 – Upper grinding stones, pounders
and pestles.
Figure 20.11, p. 275 – Two-handed upper grinding
stones.
Figure 20.12, p. 275 – Different types of lower-passive
stone tools.
Figure 20.13, p. 276 – Saddle-shaped grinding slabs.
Figure 20.14, p. 276 – Flat-topped and flat grinding slabs.
Figure 20.15, p. 276 – Saddle-shaped and block querns.
Figure 20.16, p. 277 – Quern-mortars and pitted anvils.
Figure 20.17, p. 277 – A grinding slab inserted in a stone
wall in AN11.w2.
Figure 20.18, p. 280 – Distribution of lower and upper tools
in each room / dwelling unit (L. Mori).
Figure 20.19, p. 281 – Distribution map of the grinding
stones (L. Mori; C. Putzolu).
Figure 20.20, p. 282 – A woman grinding cereals in the
courtyard of her house in Fewet.
Figure 20.21, p. 282 – Detail of the grinding equipment
used.
Figure 20.22, p. 283 – A pitted anvil and a pounder for
crushing date stones in use in Fewet today.
Figure 20.23, p. 283 – An ancient broken quern used as a
pitted anvil.
Figure 20.24, p. 283 – Different pounders used to grind
date-stones on pitted anvils.
Figure 21.1, p. 286 – Simple bowl-shaped lamps made of
vesicular basalt.
Figure 21.2, p. 286 – High-footed lamps.
Figure 21.3, p. 287 – Typology of simple bowl shaped
lamps: (a) 97R1; (b) 99R36; (c) 99R43; (d) 01R33;
(e) 01R332; (f) 99R23; (g) 00R84; (h) 01R351; (i)
01R44; (j) 00R381; (k) 00R19; (l) 00R182 (L. Mori;
L. De Ninno).
Figure 21.4, p. 288 – Vesicular basalt lamp fragment with
groove on the external face: (a) view from inside; (b)
view from outside.
Figure 21.5, p. 289 – Typology of high-footed lamps: (a)
01R333; (b) 01R104; (c) 00R611; (d) 02R02; (e)
01R45 (L. Mori; L. De Ninno).
XVI
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 21.6, p. 290 – Complete high-footed lamp from the
Fewet necropolis, tumulus FW T345.
Figure 21.7, p. 290 – Bipolar cylindrical lamp (L. Mori;
L. De Ninno).
Figure 21.8, p. 291 – Whetstone in vesicular basalt (L. Mori;
L. De Ninno).
Figure 21.9, p. 291 – Distribution map of the vesicular basalt
lamps (L. Mori; C. Putzolu).
Figure 22.1, p. 294 – Total ion current (TIC) chromatograms of the organic fraction of residues 99R43
from AN3.1 and 02R74 from AN21.3 (S. Bruni and
V. Guglielmi).
Figure 23.1, p. 297 – Functional interpretation of the
archeological heavy-duty tools: (a-c) heavy-duty
tools used to work stone; (d-h) heavy-duty tools
used to work stone, with sand as an additive; (a)
01R350; (b) 97R41; (c) 00R400; (d) 00R04; (e)
97R03; (f) 99R16; (g-h) 00R23 (C. Lemorini and
E. Cristiani).
Figure 23.2, p. 298 – Functional interpretation of the archeological heavy-duty tools: (a-f) heavy-duty tools
used to work stone, with sand as an additive; (g)
heavy-duty tool used to work metal; (h) heavy-duty
tool used to work metal, with sand as an additive;
(a) 99R26; (b) 97R36; (c) 99R110; (d) 99R125; (e)
99R148; (f) 00R333; (g) 00R314; (h) 97R02 (C.
Lemorini and E. Cristiani).
Figure 23.3, p. 300 – Functional interpretation of the archeological heavy-duty tools: (a-b) 97R02, 00R253
heavy-duty tools used to work metal, with sand as
an additive; (c-d) 97R12: heavy-duty tool potentially
used to work different materials; (e, g-h) heavy-duty
tools used to work stone, with sand as an additive; (f)
heavy-duty tool used to work different materials; (e)
99R26: example of eye-shaped groove; (f) 97R12:
example of grooves with parallel walls; (g) 99R125:
superficial depressions with a broad oval shape; (h)
99R26: detail of an eye-shaped groove with “U”
section (C. Lemorini and E. Cristiani).
Figure 23.4, p. 301 – Functional interpretation of the archeological heavy-duty tools: (a) heavy-duty tool used
to work different materials: 97R12: incision with a
step-shaped profile; (b) heavy-duty tool used to work
stone: 97R41: dense parallel striations oriented along
the axis of the incision; (c-d) heavy-duty tool used
to work stone, with sand as an additive: 99R148:
SEM-EDS analysis of the wall of an incision (a) and
SEM-EDS analysis of a mineral fragment “crushed”
on that incision; the similarity of the chemical characterization of the samples demonstrates that the
fragment is an amorphous portion of the rock (C.
Lemorini and E. Cristiani).
Figure 23.5, p. 303 – Experimental macrowear: (a) block of
coarse-grained sandstone chosen for experimentation.
Incisions similar to the archaeological ones were created with longitudinal resting percussion performed
with metal and osseous pointed artefacts (an iron
knife, an awl, the working edge of a rough-hewn axe,
bone points); (b) hard rock used for experimentation.
Note the less clear incisions obtained; (c) incision
produced by abrading bone points with a rounded
section; (d) experimental “steps” produced both when
working an iron awl and a bone point (C. Lemorini
and E. Cristiani).
Figure 23.6, p. 304 – Experimental microwear: (a-b) microwear diagnostic of the working of stone objects; (c-d)
microwear diagnostic of the working of stone objects,
with the aid of sand; (e-f) microwear diagnostic of the
working of metal objects; (g-h) microwear diagnostic
of the working of metal objects, with the aid of sand
(C. Lemorini and E. Cristiani).
Figure 23.7, p. 305 – Interpretation of archeological microand macrowear: (a) 97R41: microwear of diffuse
resting percussion associated with a grinding slab on
tool; (b) 00R04: microwear of linear resting percussion to work stone, with sand as additive observed;
(c) 97R03: macro-striations evidencing the working
action; (d) 00R23: microwear of linear resting percussion to work stone, with sand as additive observed;
(e) 99R26: micrower of linear resting percussion to
work stone, with sand as additive observed; (f) 99R26:
macrowear of linear resting percussion to work stone,
with sand as additive observed; (g-h) 99R125: macroand microwear produced by the working of stone, with
sand as additive (C. Lemorini and E. Cristiani).
Figure 23.8, p. 306 – Interpretation of archeological microand macrowear: (a) 99R148: microwear produced
by linear resting percussion to work stone, with sand
as additive; (b-c) 00R333: macro- and microwear
produced by linear resting percussion to work stone,
with sand as additive; (d) 00R314: microwear testifying the work of metal; (e) 00R314: pits produced
during its use as a pounder in thrusting percussion;
(f) 97R02: macrowear produced on tool by working
metal with sand as additive; (g-h) 97R12: zenithal
view of grooves. Note the “steps” parallel to the incision or at times perpendicular to it (C. Lemorini and
E. Cristiani).
Figure 23.9, p. 307 – Distribution map of the abraded
heavy-duty tools (C. Lemorini and E. Cristiani; C.
Putzolu).
Figure 24.1, p. 310 – Metrical dimensions of the archaeological beads: (a) glass bead 02C17; (b) glass bead 00R115;
(c) glass bead 97R116; (d) glass bead 00R202; (e)
cornelian bead 02R01; (f) stone bead 00R903; (g)
stone bead 00R163; (h) stone bead 01R177; (i) faience
bead 00R299; (l) faience bead 01C17; (m) faience
bead 01C18; (n) faience bead 00R77; (o) faience bead
99R15; (p) faience bead 00R243 (E. Cristiani).
Figure 24.2, p. 311 – The shapes of the archaeological beads:
(a) cylindrical bead with a height less than or equal to
the diameter of the base and faceted / straight edges; (b)
cylindrical bead with a height less than or equal to the
diameter of the base and rounded edges; (c) globular
bead with a height greater than the diameter of the
base; (d) ellipsoidal bead with a height greater than the
diameter of the base; (e) flattened discoidal bead with
a height greater than the width of the base and convex
lateral surfaces; (f) biconical bead (E. Cristiani).
Figure 24.3, p. 312 – Production and wear traces on the
archaeological beads: (a) chipping traces related to
the production / roughing out of the support on the
bead 00R163 (near the hole macro-traces related
to the drilling phase can be observed); (b) grinding
traces produced when smoothing the surfaces by
abrasion, bead 00R903; (c-d) macro-traces left on
bead 00R163 during the drilling phase; (e) macrotraces related to the drilling phase on bead 00R115;
(f) traces of the finishing phase (surface striations and
general polishing) on the surfaces of bead 00R903;
(g) traces of the finishing phase (surface striations and
general polishing) on the surfaces of bead 00R115;
(h) macro use-wear related to the suspension of the
bead 00R903 (E. Cristiani).
archaeological beads: (a-c) drilling traces: large chips,
oriented according to the direction of drilling, and
technological rotational striations observed around
the edge of the hole of bead 02R01; (d) coarse polishing traces localized in a direction perpendicular to the
drilling axis on bead 02R01; (e) transverse and oblique
striations with respect to the drilling axis observed on
the sides of the bead 00R903 and interpreted as grinding traces; (f) intense preferential polishing caused by
prolonged suspension found on the edges of both sides
of the hole of bead 00R903; (g-h) half moon-shaped
macro-traces related to chipping phase observed on the
lateral surfaces of bead 01R177 (E. Cristiani).
XVII
LIST OF FIGURES
archaeological beads: (a) wide rough striations related
to grinding phase, observed on the lateral surfaces
and both bases of bead 01R177; (b) preferential polishing identified on part of the edge of the hole of
bead 01R177; (c) large chips visible on the edges of
the hole of bead 00R163 and related to the drilling
phase; (d-e) prolonged handling / suspension observed
on bead 00R163; (f) sub-triangular shape of the hole
of bead 02C17 (note the absence of rotation traces on
the hole); (g) localized preferential polishing observed
on bead 00R202; (h) surface striations of rough appearance located on the protruding edge of the sides
of bead 00R115 (E. Cristiani).
Figure 25.1, p. 320 – Loom weights: (a) three conical loom
weights from room AN17; (b) a pear-shaped loom
weight from court AN25.
Figure 25.2, p. 320 – Drawing of a warp-weighted loom
(from Peyronel 2004, tav. CXXVII 2).
Figure 25.3, p. 321 – The loom weights: (a) 01R331; (b)
01R329; (c) 01R330a; (d) 01R330b; (e) 00R336; (f)
01R159 (L. Mori; L. De Ninno).
Figure 25.4, p. 321 – Distribution map of beads (B), loom
weights (L) and iron remains (I) (L. Mori; C. Putzolu).
Figure 26.1, p. 324 – Sample 00C301, (a) view of the upper
part of the slag piece; (b) view of the lower part of the
slag piece; (c) view of the section of the slag, cut to allow for observation with a metallographic microscope
(G. Guida and M. Vidale).
Figure 26.2, p. 324 – Sample 00C77: fragmentary piece of
slag of irregular polyhedral shape (G. Guida and M.
Vidale).
Figure 26.3, p. 324 – Sample 00C312: small fragmentary iron
blade, heavily mineralized (G. Guida and M. Vidale).
Figure 26.4, p. 324 – Sample 02R48: (a-b) unidentified iron
object, of semi-circular shape, severely damaged by
corrosion; (c) view of square hollow section, created by severe corrosion processes (G. Guida and M.
Vidale).
Figure 26.5, p. 325 – Sample 00C301, metallographic section (50X).
Figure 26.8, p. 325 – Sample 00C77, metallographic section
(200X).
Figure 26.9, p. 325 – Sample 00C77, metallographic section
(50X).
Figure 26.11, p. 326 – XRDF spectrum of sample 00C301,
indicating, besides iron, traces of lead.
Figure 27.1, p. 327 – The Roman coin found near Aghram
Nadharif.
Figure 27.2, p. 332 – Map of coin finds in the Sahara (dotted
area: the Limes zone) (M. Munzi; L. De Ninno).
Figure 28.1, p. 344 – Distribution map of the archaeobotanical samples (A.M. Mercuri; C. Putzolu).
Figure 28.2, p. 345 – Date palm stones: measurements of 55
fruit stones from samples AN3.2 and AN22.1 (A.M.
Mercuri).
Figure 28.3, p. 346 – Two date palm stones of very different
size showing the probable presence of more than one
cultivar in the site.
Figure 28.4, p. 346 – The peach-stone 99C25 from
AN3.2.
Figure 29.1, p. 351 – Distribution map of the archaeozoological remains (F. Alhaique; C. Putzolu).
Figure 29.2, p. 352 – Cattle skeleton from AN17, with indication of body parts recovered (shaded portions) and
localization of butchery marks (F. Alhaique).
Figure 29.3, p. 352 – Ovicaprine humerus from AN21, with
transverse incision (L. De Ninno).
Figure 29.4, p. 359 – Engraved astragali from AN2, with
incisions.
Figure 30.1, p. 365 – Distribution map of the radiocarbondated samples (M. Liverani; C. Putzolu).
Figure 32.1, p. 383 – Tentative reconstruction of the Tanezzuft polities (M. Liverani; A. Felici).
Figure 32.2, p. 385 – Garamantian representations of
oases: palm trees and orchard partitions from Tin-Annewin.
Figure 32.3, p. 387 – Garamantian representations of oases: drawing water from a well (from Lhote 1982:
fig. 98).
Figure 32.4, p. 390 – Garamantian representations of
oases: pollination of palm trees (from Lhote 1982:
fig. 24).
Figure 33.1, p. 396 – Excavated and unexcavated houses in
Aghram Nadharif (M. Liverani; C. Putzolu).
Figure 34.1, p. 413 – Sketch map of Aghram Nadharif fortification and circulation (M. Liverani; C. Putzolu).
Figure 34.2, p. 415 – The city wall, inner structure.
Figure 34.3, p. 416 – Diagram of the covered areas in the
Aghram Nadharif houses (M. Liverani; L. Mori).
Figure 34.4, p. 418 – The egalitarian appearance of the
Aghram Nadharif cemetery.
Figure 34.5, p. 420 – Aghram Nadharif cemetery: the tumulus excavated in 1999.
Figure 36.1, p. 435 – The Garamantian castle in the Wadi
Imassarajen.
Figure 36.2, p. 435 – The village around the Immassarajen
castle.
Figure 36.3, p. 437 – The Garamantian castle in the Wadi
Adad.
Figure 36.4, p. 438 – Garamantian engravings on the Irlarlaren pass.
Figure 36.5, p. 438 – Old Libyan inscription on the Irlarlaren pass.
Figure 36.6, p. 440 – The Irlarlaren pass, view towards the
Wadi Tanezzuft.
Figure 36.7, p. 443 – The expansion of the Garamantian
kingdom (c. 300 BC to 200 AD): a tentative visualization (M. Liverani; L. De Ninno).
Figure 37.1, p. 449 – The trans-Saharan caravan route according to Herodotus (M. Liverani; L. De Ninno).
Figure 37.2, p. 451 – The position of the Wadi Tanezzuft
in the trans-Saharan trade network (distances in km
from Ghat; hatched area = Fig. 37.3) (M. Liverani;
L. De Ninno).
Figure 37.3, p. 453 – The Wadi Tanezzuft node in the caravan network (M. Liverani; R. Castelli).
XVIII
LISTLIST
OF COLOUR
PLATES
OF FIGURES
L i s t o f Ta b l e s
Table 1.I, p. 2 – Demography and economy of the Tanezzuft
oases, before modernization (M. Liverani, based on
Gigliarelli 1931 and Scarin 1937).
Table 1.II, p. 5 – Excavated volumes and their contents, by
area (M. Liverani).
Table 1.III, p. 5 – Excavated volumes and their contents, by
layer (M. Liverani).
Table 2.I, p. 15 – Archaeological sites in the southern Tanezzuft Valley (M. Cremaschi).
Table 2.II, p. 16 – Radiometric dates from the Tanezzuft
Valley (M. Cremaschi).
Table 4.I, p. 27 – Size and location of the cemeteries around
the Barkat Oasis (R. Castelli).
Table 4.II, p. 27 – Theoretical distribution of tumuli by
period (M. Liverani).
Table 5.I, p. 30 – Coding of the surveyed walls (C. Putzolu).
Table 5.II, p. 30 – Measurements of the excavated rooms
(C. Putzolu).
Table 5.III, p. 30 – Measurements of groups of excavated
rooms (C. Putzolu).
Table 6.I, p. 42 – Akakus rock art sites surveyed during the
seasons 2001-04 (D. Zampetti and S. Biagetti).
Table 7.I, p. 57 – List of samples from AN1 (M. Liverani).
Table 7.II, p. 58 – List of objects from AN1 (M. Liverani
and L. Mori).
Table 7.III, p. 58 – Count of pottery fragments from AN1
(M.C. Gatto).
Table 7.IV, p. 60 – List of samples from AN3 (M. Liverani).
Table 7.V, p. 60 – List of objects from AN3 (M. Liverani
and L. Mori).
Table 7.VI, p. 61 – Count of pottery fragments from AN3
(M.C. Gatto).
Table 7.VII, p. 61 – List of samples from AN2 (M. Liverani).
Table 7.VIII, p. 66 – List of objects from AN2 (M. Liverani
and L. Mori).
Table 7.IX, p. 67 – Count of pottery fragments from AN2
(M.C. Gatto).
Table 7.X, p. 67 – Texture of walls in AN1-2-3 (M. Liverani).
Table 7.XI, p. 68 – Percentages of pottery types by room in
AN1-3 (M. Liverani).
Table 7.XII, p. 68 – Percentages of pottery types by layer in
AN1-3 (M. Liverani).
Table 7.XIII, p. 68 – AN1-2-3: the excavated volumes and
their contents (M. Liverani).
Table 7.XIV, p. 68 – AN1-2-3: volumes and contents by
Table 7.XV, p. 68 – AN1-2-3: volumes and contents by
room (M. Liverani).
Table 8.I, p. 74 – List of samples from AN22 (M.C.
Gatto).
Table 8.II, p. 75 – List of objects from AN22 (M.C. Gatto
and L. Mori).
(M.C. Gatto).
Table 8.IV, p. 80 – List of samples from AN21 (M.C.
Gatto).
Table 8.V, p. 80 – List of objects from AN21 (M.C. Gatto
and L. Mori).
(M.C. Gatto).
Table 8.VII, p. 85 – List of samples from AN20 (M.C.
Gatto).
Table 8.VIII, p. 85 – List of objects from AN20 (M.C. Gatto
and L. Mori).
Table 8.IX, p. 86 – Count of pottery fragments from AN20
(M.C. Gatto).
Table 8.X, p. 86 – Texture of walls in AN20-21-22 (M.
Liverani).
Table 8.XI, p. 86 – AN20-21-22: the excavated volumes
and their contents (M. Liverani).
Table 8.XII, p. 86 – AN20-21-22: volumes and contents by
Table 8.XIII, p. 87 – AN20-21-22: volumes and contents
by room (M. Liverani).
Table 9.I, p. 95 – List of samples from AN26-27 (L.
Mori).
Table 9.II, p. 95 – List of objects from AN26-27 (L. Mori).
Table 9.III, p. 96 – Count of pottery fragments from AN2627 (M.C. Gatto).
Table 9.IV, p. 96 – Texture of city wall and tower (M.
Liverani).
Table 9.V, p. 96 – AN26-27: the excavated volumes and
Table 9.VI, p. 96 – AN26-27: volumes and contents by layer
(M. Liverani).
Table 9.VII, p. 96 – AN26-27: volumes and contents by
room (M. Liverani).
Table 10.I, p. 105 – List of samples from AN24 (L. Mori).
Table 10.II, p. 106 – List of objects from AN24 (L. Mori).
Table 10.III, p. 107 – Count of pottery fragments from
AN24 (M.C. Gatto).
Table 10.IV, p. 109 – List of samples from AN4 (L. Mori).
Table 10.V, p. 109 – List of objects from AN4 (L. Mori).
(M.C. Gatto).
Table 10.VII, p. 110 – Texture of walls in AN4-24-25 (M.
Liverani).
Table 10.VIII, p. 111 – AN4-24: the excavated volumes and
Table 10.IX, p. 111 – AN4-24: volumes and contents by
Table 10.X, p. 111 – AN4-24: volumes and contents by
room (M. Liverani).
AN25 (M.C. Gatto).
Table 11.IV, p. 119 – AN25: the excavated volumes and
Table 11.V, p. 119 – AN25: volumes and contents by layer
(M. Liverani).
and L. Mori).
(M.C. Gatto).
Table 12.IV, p.130 – List of samples from AN13 (M. Liverani).
Table 12.V, p. 130 – List of objects from AN13 (M. Liverani
and L. Mori).
XIX
LIST
LISTOF
OFFIGURES
TABLES
Table 12.VI, p. 130 – Count of pottery fragments from
AN13 (M.C. Gatto).
Table 12.VII, p. 131 – Texture of walls in AN9-13 (M.
Liverani).
Table 12.VIII, p. 131 – Percentages of pottery types by room
in AN9-13 (M. Liverani).
Table 12.IX, p. 131 – Percentages of pottery types by layer
Table 12.X, p. 131 – AN9-13: the excavated volumes and
Table 12.XI, p. 132 – AN9-13: volumes and contents by
Table 12.XII, p. 132 – AN9-13: volumes and contents by
room (M. Liverani).
Table 13.II, p. 142 – List of samples from AN7 (L. Mori).
Table 13.III, p. 142 – List of objects from AN5 (L. Mori).
Table 13.IV, p. 143 – List of objects from AN7 (L. Mori).
Table 13.V, p. 143 – Count of pottery fragments from
AN5 / 7 (M.C. Gatto).
Table 13.VI, p. 146 – List of samples from AN6 (L.
Mori).
Table 13.VII, p. 146 – List of objects from AN6 (L. Mori).
Table 13.VIII, p. 147 – Count of pottery fragments from
AN6 (M.C. Gatto).
Table 13.IX, p. 147 – Texture of walls in AN5-6-7 (M.
Liverani).
Table 13.X, p. 148 – AN5 / 7-6: the excavated volumes and
Table 13.XI, p. 148 – AN5 / 7-6: volumes and contents by
Table 13.XII, p. 148 – AN5 / 7-6: volumes and contents by
room (M. Liverani).
AN14 (M.C. Gatto).
Table 14.IV, p. 161 – List of samples from AN8 (L. Mori).
Table 14.V, p. 161 – List of objects from AN8 (L. Mori).
(M.C. Gatto).
Table 14.VII, p. 164 – Texture of walls in AN8-14 (M.
Liverani).
Table 14.VIII, p. 164 – AN8-14: the excavated volumes and
Table 14.IX, p. 164 – AN8-14: volumes and contents by
Table 14.X, p. 164 – AN8-14: volumes and contents by
room (M. Liverani).
and L. Mori).
Table 15.III, p. 176 – List of objects from AN11-12 (M.
Liverani and L. Mori).
Table 15.IV, p. 177 – Count of pottery fragments from
AN11 (M.C. Gatto).
Table 15.V, p. 177 – List of samples from AN12 (M. Liverani).
Table 15.VI, p. 178 – List of objects from AN12 (M. Liverani
and L. Mori).
Table 15.VII, p. 179 – Count of pottery fragments from
AN12 (M.C. Gatto).
Table 15.VIII, p. 181 – Texture of walls in AN11-12 (M.
Liverani).
Table 15.IX, p. 181 – Percentages of pottery types by room
Table 15.X, p. 181 – Percentages of pottery types by layer
Table 15.XI, p. 181 – AN11-12: the excavated volumes
and their contents (M. Liverani).
Table 15.XII, p. 181 – AN11-12: volumes and contents by
Table 15.XIII, p. 181 – AN11-12: volumes and contents
by room (M. Liverani).
Table 16.I, p. 188 – List of samples from AN16 (C. Ottomano).
Table 16.II, p. 188 – List of objects from AN16 (C. Ottomano and L. Mori).
Table 16.III, p. 192 – List of samples from AN17-18-19
(C. Ottomano).
Table 16.IV, p. 193 – List of objects from AN17-18-19 (C.
Ottomano and L. Mori).
Table 16.V, p.194 – Count of pottery fragments from
AN17-18-19 (M.C. Gatto).
Table 16.VI, p. 194 – Percentages of pottery types by room
in AN17-18-19 (M. Liverani).
Table 16.VII, p. 194 – Percentages of pottery types by layer
in AN17-18-19 (M. Liverani).
Table 16.VIII, p. 194 – Texture of walls in AN17-18-19
(M. Liverani).
Table 16.IX, p. 196 – AN16-17-18-19: the excavated
volumes and their contents (M. Liverani).
Table 16.X, p. 196 – AN16-17-18-19: volumes and contents by layer (M. Liverani).
Table 16.XI, p. 196 – AN16-17-18-19: volumes and contents by room (M. Liverani).
Table 17.I, p. 205 – The local pottery: classes and their
variants (M.C. Gatto).
Table 17.II, p. 214 – Bowls, restricted simple contour
(M.C. Gatto).
Table 17.III, p. 214 – Bowls, unrestricted simple contour
(M.C. Gatto).
Table 17.IV, p. 220 – Platters (M.C. Gatto).
Table 17.V, p. 220 – Handled pots (M.C. Gatto).
Table 17.VI, p. 223 – Jars, restricted simple contour (M.C.
Gatto).
Table 17.VII, p. 223 – Jars, restricted lipped contour
(M.C. Gatto).
Table 17.VIII, p. 223 – Jars, restricted necked contour,
narrow-mouthed (M.C. Gatto).
Table 17.IX, p. 223 – Jars, restricted necked contour, medium to wide-mouthed, small size (M.C. Gatto).
Table 17.X, p. 224 – Jars, restricted necked contour, medium to wide-mouthed, medium size (M.C. Gatto).
Table 17.XI, p. 225 – Jars, restricted necked contour, medium to wide-mouthed, large size (M.C. Gatto).
Table 19.I, p. 250 – List of the ceramic fragments analysed
(M. Artioli, L. Laddaga, and M. Dapiaggi).
Table 19.II, p. 251 – Results of the Rietveld-type quantitative analysis of the mineral phases (M. Artioli, L.
Laddaga, and M. Dapiaggi).
Table 19.III, p. 252 – Major element chemical analysis
results by XRF (M. Artioli, L. Laddaga, and M.
Dapiaggi).
Table 20.I, p. 262 – Typology of the grinding stones (L.
Mori).
Table 20.II, p. 282 – Distribution of raw materials in the
general classes of tools (L. Mori).
Table 21.I, p. 290 – Distribution of vesicular basalt lamps
in the various rooms (L. Mori).
Table 22.I, p. 294 – Percentages of trimethylsilyl esters of
fatty acids relative to the total amount of derivatized
fatty acids and calculated on the basis of total ion
current peaks (S. Bruni and V. Guglielmi).
XX
LISTOF
OFFIGURES
TABLES
LIST
Table 23.I, p. 296 – Dimensions of the heavy-duty tools and
their carved areas (C. Lemorini and E. Cristiani).
Table 24.I, p. 310 – Metrical dimensions of the archaeological beads (E. Cristiani).
Table 25.I, p. 320 – The loom weights (L. Mori).
Table 27.I, p. 328 – Coin finds on the Limes Tripolitanus
(M. Munzi).
Table 27.II, p. 330 – Coin finds between the Grand Erg
Oriental, Hoggar and Tibesti (M. Munzi).
Table 27.III, p. 330 – Coin finds in Nubia (M. Munzi).
Table 28.I, p. 336 – Flora of the Wadi Tannezzuft according
to Corti 1942.
Table 28.II, p. 337 –The archaeobotanical record (A.M.
Mercuri).
Table 28.III, pp. 338-339 – Pollen data: percentage spectra
of 16 samples from 10 rooms (A.M. Mercuri).
Table 28.IV, p. 341 – Carpological data: 15 samples from
10 rooms (G. Bosi and F. Buldrini).
Table 28.V, p. 342 – Anthracological data: 31 samples from
8 rooms and 3 open areas (G. Trevisan Grandi, L.
Forlani and F. Buldrini).
Table 29.I, p. 350 – Faunal assemblage from Area I, AN1718-19 (F. Alhaique).
Table 29.II, p. 350 – Faunal assemblage from Area II, lane
AN2-20 (F. Alhaique).
Table 29.III, p. 350 – Faunal assemblage from Area II, house
Table 29.IV, p. 354 – Faunal assemblage from Area II, house
Table 29.V, p. 354 – Faunal assemblage from Area II, summary of the Garamantian layers (F. Alhaique).
Table 29.VI, p. 354 – Faunal assemblage from Area III, open
area AN4-24 (F. Alhaique).
Table 29.VII, p. 354 – Faunal assemblage from Area III, lane
AN10 and postern AN26 (F. Alhaique).
Table 29.VIII, p. 354 – Faunal assemblage from Area III,
courtyard AN25 (F. Alhaique).
Table 29.IX, p. 355 – Faunal assemblage from Area III, stores
AN6 and AN7 (F. Alhaique).
Table 29.X, p. 355 – Faunal assemblage from Area III, house
Table 29.XI, p. 355 – Faunal assemblage from Area III, house
Table 29.XII, p. 356 – Faunal assemblage from Area III,
summary of the Garamantian layers (F. Alhaique).
Table 29.XIII, p. 357 – Faunal assemblage from Area IV,
house and courtyard AN11-12 (F. Alhaique).
Table 29.XIV, p. 357 – Faunal assemblage from Aghram
Nadharif, summary of the Garamantian layers (F.
Alhaique).
Table 29.XV, p. 357 – Bone modifications detected on the
faunal assemblage from the Garamentian layers (F.
Alhaique).
Table 30.I, p. 366 – Radiocarbon dates from Aghram
Nadharif (in chronological order) (M. Liverani).
Table 30.II, p. 366 – Visualization of the calibrated dates
from Aghram Nadharif (OxCal 3.9).
Table 30.III, p. 368 – General periodization of the Aghram
Nadharif excavation (M. Liverani).
Table 30.IV, p. 369 – Radiocarbon date from Fewet (in
chronological order) (M. Liverani).
Table 30.V, p. 369 – Visualization of the calibrated dates
from Fewet (OxCal 3.9).
Table 30.VI, p. 370 – Radiocarbon dates from Imessarajen
and Adad, in chronological order (based on Biagetti
et al., forthcoming).
Table 30.VII, p. 370 – Visualization of the calibrated dates
from Imessarajen and Adad (OxCal 3.9).
Table 30.VIII, p. 371 – Radiocarbon dates from the Wadi
el-Ajal escarpment villages (based on Mattingly, Edwards and Dore 2002).
Table 30.IX, p. 371 – Visualization of the calibrated dates
from the Wadi el-Ajal escarpment villages (OxCal
3.9).
Table 30.X, p. 372 – Radiocarbon dates from pre-Islamic
Jarma (based on Mattingly, Edwards and Dore
2002).
Table 30.XI, p. 372 – Visualization of the calibrated dates
from pre-Islamic Jarma (OxCal 3.9).
Table 30.XII, p. 373 – Radiocarbon dates from pre-Islamic
castles in Wadi el-Ajal and Wadi Barjuj (based on
Mattingly, Edwards and Dore 2002).
Table 30.XIII, p. 373 – Visualization of the calibrated dates
from the pre-Islamic castles in Wadi el-Ajal and Wadi
Barjuj (OxCal 3.9).
Table 31.I, p. 377 – Covered and open spaces during the
first and second phases (M. Liverani).
Table 32.I, p. 385 – Agricultural infrastructures in the Fezzan
oases, 1930 AD (M. Liverani, based on Gigliarelli
1932).
Table 32.II, p. 391 – Animal stock in Fezzan, 1930 AD (M.
Liverani, based on Gigliarelli 1932).
Table 32.III, p. 391 – Animal stock: sedentary v. nomadic
(M. Liverani, based on Gigliarelli 1932).
Table 33.I, p. 397 – Size of the excavated houses (covered
areas, walls excluded) (M. Liverani).
Table 33.II, p. 397 – Size of the surveyed houses (covered
areas, walls excluded) (M. Liverani)
Table 33.III, p. 398 – Size of the storerooms and courtyards
(M. Liverani)
Table 33.IV, p. 398 – Possible “enlarged” households (M.
Liverani).
Table 33.V, p. 399 – Texture of walls in the excavated buildings (M. Liverani).
Table 33.VI, p. 401 – Width of walls in the excavated buildings (M. Liverani).
Table 33.VII, p. 401 – Size of bricks in Aghram Nadharif
masonry (M. Liverani).
Table 33.VIII, p. 401 – Width of doorways and windows
(M. Liverani).
Table 33.IX, p. 403 – Presence / absence of working and
storage facilities in the excavated houses (M. Liverani).
Table 33.X, p. 404 – Size of pits and bins in the excavated
houses (M. Liverani).
Table 33.XI, p. 405 – Volume of the storage facilities (in
litres) in the excavated houses (M. Liverani).
Table 33.XII, p. 405 – Volume of the storage facilities (in
litres) in the “enlarged households” (M. Liverani).
Table 33.XIII, p. 407 – Development of the dwelling and funerary forms in connection with the socio-economic
structure (M. Liverani).
Table 33.XIV, p. 408 – Field and analytical characteristics of
the mud-brick and mortar samples (M. Cremaschi).
Table 34.I, p. 412 – Texture of the city wall (M. Liverani).
Table 35.I, p. 427 – Demographic estimate based on cemeteries (M. Liverani).
XXI
OF FIGURES
LISTLIST
OF COLOUR
PLATES
List of Colour Plates
Plate I, p. 465 – Ikonos satellite image of the Barkat
oasis.
Plate II, p. 466 – The Quaternary geology of the southern
part of the Tanezzuft Valley. (1) Tassili sandstone
(Silurian) eroded in the shape of a pediment; (2)
Tanezzuft shales (Upper Silurian) dissected in bad
lands; (3) red sand (RS) formation (Middle-Upper
Pleistocene); (4) slope deposits and alluvial fan,
mostly gravel (F1-F2-F3) (Middle-Early Holocene);
(5) fine swamp deposits rich in organic matter,
Unit 1 (Early-Middle Holocene); (6) gravel, Unit
2 (Early Holocene); (7) alluvium, Unit 3 (Middle-Late Holocene); (8) recent Wadi Tanezzuft
deposits, Unit 4 (Late Holocene); (9) yellow sand
(YS) dune formation, Unit 5 (Late Holocene); (10)
Barkat alluvial fan; (11) archaeological sites (M.
Cremaschi).
Plate III, p. 467 – Holocene geology and geomorphology
in the surroundings of Barkat. (1) Swamp deposits,
Unit 1; (2) gravel, Unit 2; (3) alluvial deposits,
Unit 3; (4) sub-recent deposits of the Wadi Tanezzuft, Unit 4; (5) Barkat alluvial fan; (6) canyon; (7)
branches of the Wadi Tanezzuft: 1 western, 2 central,
3 eastern; (8) tethering stones; (9) archaeological
sites (M. Cremaschi).
Plate IV, p. 468 – Meander bars, composed of gravel dating
back to the Early Holocene. Wadi Tanezzuft, Tahala,
north of Kaf al-Jinun (M. Cremaschi).
Plate V, p. 469 – Archaeological Sites (of the Epipalaeolithic, Mesolithic and Pastoral periods), tethering
stones and radiocarbon dates in the Tanezzuft Valley, from geoarchaeological surveys during field
seasons 1999-2003. (1) Radiocarbon dated sites
in geological deposits; (2) archaeological sites:
clusters of fireplaces; (3) tethering stones (M.
Cremaschi).
Plate VI, p. 470 – Changes in size of the Tanezzuft oasis. (1)
Extent of the late 6th millennium oasis; (2) extent of
the 4th-3rd millennium oasis; (3) extent of the 2nd millennium oasis: at this time Fewet, Ghat, Barkat and
Esseyen are already separated (M. Cremaschi).
Plate VII, p. 471 – Distribution of the archaeological sites
in the southern Tanezzuft Valley. (1) Pastoral sites;
(2) Garamantian sites; (3) tethering stones (M.
Cremaschi).
Plate VIII, p. 472 – Distribution map of the Garamantian
rock art sites (D. Zampetti and S. Biagetti).
Plate IX, p. 473 – (a) Three-dimensional reconstruction
of the model-house AN1-3. (b) Three-dimensional
reconstruction of the small quarter around lane
AN10, with the ramp leading up to the city wall,
the courtyard AN25 and the house AN9-13 on its
left, and the house AN8-14 and the stores AN5 / 7-6
on its right (C. Alvaro and T. D’Este).
Plate X, p. 474 – The local pottery: (a) examples of impressed decoration; (b) examples of incised decoration; (c) examples of applications; (d) examples
of painted potsherds; (e) examples of decoration
obtained with combined techniques; (f) incised and
painted cup from AN11 (M.C. Gatto).
Plate XI, p. 475 – (a) XRPD patterns of the internal part
(blue curve) and of the surface ochre layer (red curve)
of sample AN 22 / 3). (b) Ternary diagram of the major
mineral components of the Aghram Nadharif ceramics:
plotted data are renormalized quartz, mica and feldspar
wt %. Blue, red, and magenta circles refer to F, C, and
CC ceramics respectively. The green triangle refers to
sample AN2 / 7, containing abundant melitite and pyroxene. (c) Ternary diagram of chemical components:
plotted data are renormalized SiO2-Fe2O3-CaO oxide
wt %. Blue, red, and magenta circles refer to F, C, and
CC ceramics respectively. The Ca-silicate rich sample
AN2 / 7 is marked with a triangle. The melitite containing samples AN2 / 8 and AN12 / 1 are marked with
squares (G. Artioli, L. Laddaga and M. Dapiaggi).
Plate XII, p. 476 – Archaeometry of the local pottery: (a)
Example of ceramic fragment (sample AN22 / 3) with
a reddish-ochre layer on the internal surface (right).
The outer surface (left) shows no signs of the pigment layer. (b) Detail of the surface of sample AN2 / 2
showing traces of plant parts used as temper in the
ceramic paste. (c-d-e) SEM backscattered electron
photographs of plant microfeatures in the ceramic
matrix of samples AN3 / 3 (c) and AN22 / 3 (d); OM
image of a plant stem in sample AN4 / 1 (e) (G. Artioli,
L. Laddaga and M. Dapiaggi).
Plate XIII, p. 477 – OM images of thin sections. (a) Sample
ANsurf / 2 in plane-polarized (left) and cross-polarized
light (right). The F-type ceramic paste shows black
glassy matrix, a number of cracks and sub-rounded
voids, a large fraction of fine grained inclusions,
mostly quartz, and a small number of mm-sized calcite
crystals. (b) Sample AN2 / 1 in plane-polarized (left)
and cross-polarized light (right). The C-type ceramic
paste shows dark brown glassy matrix, more reddish
at the surface of the sherd (leftmost part of the image), a number of cracks, a portion of medium-grained
inclusions, and a small number of mm-sized grains
of heterogeneous composition. (c) AN2 / 6 in planepolarized (left) and cross-polarized light (right). The
C-type ceramic paste shows reddish glassy matrix,
a number of cracks and rounded voids, a portion
of medium-grained inclusions, and a small number
of mm-sized grains of quartz and grog. (d) Sample
AN6 / 1 in plane-polarized (left) and cross-polarized
light (right). The CC-type ceramic paste shows dark
glassy matrix, large cracks and voids, a portion of
medium-grained rounded inclusions, and a number of
mm-sized subangular grains of polycrystalline quartz
(G. Artioli, L. Laddaga and M. Dapiaggi).
Plate XIV, p. 478 – Typological description of the ceramic pastes
L1-L4 (G. Artioli, L. Laddaga and M. Dapiaggi).
Plate XV, p. 479 – Typological description of the ceramic pastes
L5-L8 (G. Artioli, L. Laddaga and M. Dapiaggi).
Plate XVI, p. 480 – Grain size distribution of the Aghram
Nadharif ceramics as resulting from the computerized
image analysis. Three classes have been defined (F, C,
CC). For each class it is reported: (a) the column diagram showing the quantitative evaluation of each grain
size fraction, and (b) the OM image of a thin section of
a potsherd presenting the typical appearance of each
class (G. Artioli, L. Laddaga and M. Dapiaggi).
XXII
COMMENTARIES
Editorial and recording conventions
AN = Aghram Nadharif.
Elevations refer to a “zero” point at 713.673 m above sea
level.
Rooms or delimited areas inside AN are designated as AN1,
AN2, etc.
Residential units are designated as AN1-3, AN8-14, etc.
Stratigraphic units are designated as AN1.1, AN1.2, etc.
(with separate sequences for each room or delimited
area).
Loci inside stratigraphic units are designated as AN1.1α,
AN1.1β, etc.
Features are designated as AN.w1, AN1.w2, AN1.p1, etc.
(with separate sequences for each room or delimited
area).
Conventional abbreviations for features: b = bench or
platform; bt = buttress; d = door(way); f = floor; h =
hearth or fireplace; p = pit; ph = posthole; s = bin or
silo; w = wall.
Sequence of walls inside a room: w1 = E wall, w2 = N
wall, w3 = W wall, w4 = S wall.
Objects are recorded as 97R01, 97R02, etc.: the first two
digits refer to the year of the campaign, the letter R to
the Italian “reperto” (“find”), the final digits follow a
separate sequence for each year.
Samples are recorded as 97C01, 97C02, etc.: the first two
digits refer to the year of campaign, the letter C to the
Italian “campione” (“sample”), the final digits follow a
separate sequence for each year.
Local pottery fragments are recorded as B1, B2, etc.; J1, J2,
etc., i.e. by type initials plus a number (common sequence
for the entire excavation).
Conventional abbreviations for pottery types (in Chapters
17-18): B = bowls; J = jars; H = handled pots; P = platters; R = Roman pottery. Additional abbreviations for
pottery fabrics, decorations, vessel parts, and sub-types
are peculiar to Chapter 17 and explained there.
Pottery samples (in Chapter 19) are designated as AN1 / 1,
AN1 / 2, etc., i.e. room code plus a progressive number.
Palaeobotanical abbreviations (in Chapter 28): AS = anthracological sample; CS = carpological sample; PS=
pollen sample.
Lengths are given in cm, surface areas in m2 (larger areas in
hectares), volumes in m3.
Non-calibrated radiocarbon dates are labelled as bp.
Internal cross-references are given by Chapter and paragraph
(§), without page numbers.
Capitalized Fig. and Tab. refer to this volume; lower case
fig. and tab. refer to other publications.
The English (UK) style, revised by Erika Milburn, follows the
norms of the Modern Humanities Research Association
Style Book.
Toponyms (both Arabic and Berber / Tuareg) attempt to
reach a compromise between precise transcriptions (cf.
the table in Mattingly ed. 2003: xvii-xxi) and current
usage, and do not make any claims to scientific accuracy.
Italian and French conventions have been modified in
accordance with English usage.
XXIII
COMMENTARIES
Foreword
The ambitious volume Aghram Nadharif. The Barkat
Oasis (Sha‘abiya of Ghat, Libyan Sahara) in Garamantian Times – seven parts, thirty-eight chapters,
five hundreds of pages…– represents an important
step in the publishing activities of the “Italian-Libyan
Archaeological Mission in the Acacus and Messak (Libyan Sahara)” of the University of Rome La Sapienza.
After fifty years of nearly uninterrupted research in
this remote but crucial region of the Sahara, this is the
first book devoted exclusively to the proto-history and
history of the region, integrating systematic fieldwork,
accurate laboratory analyses, and interdisciplinary reconstructions of life and culture in the southern Wadi
Tanezzuft at the time of the Garamantes.
Inter- and multi-disciplinary approaches are deeply
rooted in the traditions of our mission, from the first
book written by Fabrizio Mori – Tadrart Acacus,
published in 1965. In more recent times, Mauro
Cremaschi and myself have returned archaeological
research in the area to the attention of the scientific
community: Wadi Teshuinat, published in 1998, was
aimed at understanding climatic variations and cultural adaptations through regional fieldwork. Later,
the monographs Uan Afuda (di Lernia ed. 1999) and
Uan Tabu (Garcea ed. 2001) began to systematically present the final results of site-oriented projects,
within the Arid Zone Archaeology Series, with the
encouragement and support of Mario Liverani. In
2002, a further territorial project – Sand, Stones,
and Bones (edited by Savino di Lernia and Giorgio
Manzi) – part of a wider programme of studies, was
devoted to the analysis of the funerary archaeology
of later prehistoric groups of pastoral tradition. This
book, the first of the series The Archaeology of Libyan
Sahara, reflected a change in the aims and object of
the mission’s activities: no longer devoted only to
the early and middle Holocene, as had been the case
for nearly half a century of research, but also to the
most recent phases of the pastoral Neolithic, trying
to insert the cultural trajectories of these prehistoric
people within a broader historical context, up to the
emergence of the Garamantian civilization.
The book Aghram Nadharif represents an ideal
continuation of that path, strongly desired by Mario
Liverani, and constitutes an important contribution to
historical archaeology, as seen from the Sahara (and
not from the Mediterranean Sea…).
The scientific community and the members of the
mission have long awaited the publication of this book:
thanks to a deliberate editorial choice by Liverani, only
a few articles on this Garamantian hilltop village were
published during and after the excavations, while the
systematic study was underway. I believe that this
strongly enhances the interest of this work, partly in
relation to the results of the “Fazzan Project” in the
Garama oasis, led by David Mattingly of Leicester University. As Mario Liverani (2004) notes in his review
of Mattingly’s book, the presence in a ‘small’ region
of two different but parallel programmes of research
is a fortunate coincidence; once completed, they may
provide an accurate reconstruction of climatic changes
and cultural developments over time, from the Early
Holocene to the advent of Islamic civilization.
If we look beyond the Libyan Sahara, projects dealing with regional and diachronic research are truly
scarce, and this may explain why Saharan archaeology
suffers from a certain degree of isolation, as compared
to that of other African regions (di Lernia 2005).
In this direction, and in my personal opinion, this
book is the best answer: to our readers and colleagues
falls the task of evaluating the organization and quality of the work. But I wish to stress, once more, the
pace of publications of the Italian-Libyan Mission:
this is largely due to the tools used in the field (which
significantly reduce working times without any loss
of accuracy), the multi-disciplinary organization of
our activities (from the planning of the project to
its publication), and the excellent relations with the
Libyan authorities – which make our work in Libya
possible and easy.
Starting from scientific activities, such as those expressed in this volume, we must now go further, in the
attempt to protect this extraordinary cultural heritage
and allow for sustainable tourism. The creation of the
National Park of the Akakus, proposed five years ago
(Liverani et al. 2000) can no longer be postponed:
if this book, like the others by the Italian-Libyan
Archaeological Mission, help to achieve this goal, its
importance will go far beyond its scientific value and
historical contribution.
XXV
SAVINO DI LERNIA
Director of the Italian-Libyan Archaeological
Mission in the Akakus and Messak
COMMENTARIES
Commentaries
The fortified citadel of Aghram Nadharif is located
mid-way between the Mediterranean coast and the
Sahel belt. This location makes the studies presented
here of particular interest even for someone like myself
whose research is focused on the Sahel zone and further
south. Aghram Nadharif is dated to the late Garamantian period and lies in a strategically favourable position
in the Ghat-Barkat area of the Wadi Tanezzuft. It was
studied intensively by the Italian-Libyan Archaeological
Mission in the Tadrart Akakus and Messak of the CIRSA
(Centro di Ricerca Internuniversitario sulle Civiltà e
l’Ambiente del Sahara Antico e delle Zone Aride, University of Rome «La Sapienza») during five campaigns
between 1997 and 2001. Edited by Mario Liverani,
the director of the CIRSA, the results are presented
here in an impressive and exemplary elaborateness.
As an outsider, considering Aghram Nadharif from
the far southern fringe of the Sahara, I simply wish
to congratulate the editor and his team for presenting
outstanding results in an outstanding publication.
Starting with the environment of the site in time and
space and its topographic appearance, the following
descriptions of the different excavated units provide
an insight into details of the architecture and its modification during the existence of Aghram Nadharif. The
subsequent chapters inform the reader about the excavated archaeological materials, in particular pottery as
the most common find category, whose local production
and regional and interregional contexts astonishingly
had never been studied thoroughly before. Second in
frequency are ground stone tools, which had a wide
range of functions in Garamantian times. Other stone
tools comprise lamps made of vesicular basalt, and
grooved or carved stones, whose function is discussed.
Further studies are dedicated to beads, loom weights,
iron objects and a Roman coin, found in the vicinity
of the citadel and posing the question how far there
was a monetary circulation beyond the boundaries of
the African provinces of the Roman Empire. All in all
a comprehensive view of Garamantian material culture
is drawn.
Important data discussed in the paper on the environment and economy derive from archaeobotanical
and archaeozoological investigations. Then follow the
dating of the site and its history, substantial social and
demographic considerations, as well as the regional
and supra-regional context. The latter topic includes
trans-Saharan trade – a difficult matter to decipher
by archaeological means. There are indications that
trans-Saharan trade has roots in pre-Arabic times and
probably originates in a Garamantian context, if not
even earlier. The evidence for long-distance trade in
Aghram Nadharif is based on fragments of oil amphora. I may contribute more general evidence of trade
through the Sahara during the same period from the
Sahelian point of view, and refer to glass beads found in
the site of Kissi, located in the Niger bend, in the north
of Burkina Faso. This multi-phased site was excavated
by Sonja Magnavita roughly during the same time our
Italian colleagues excavated Aghram Nadharif. A large
number of glass beads were found in graves at Kissi,
dated to a period that is at least partly contemporaneous
to the late Garamantian period. According to chemical
analysis the glass beads of Kissi were manufactured in
the Middle East, far from the place where they were
found. One of the hypothetical trade routes leads from
the Middle East to Egypt and through the Sahara to
the Sahel via the Garamantes as middleman. However,
there are alternative routes from the southern Red Sea
through the Sahel zone from East to West. Probably
one should consider chemical analysis of the glass beads
found in Aghram Nadharif. Imagine if they belong to
the same group as Kissi!
As a concluding remark, I would like to highlight
the quality of the studies on Aghram Nadharif. The
multidisciplinary approach in analysing the archaeological materials by including natural sciences and
the application of modern methods of archaeological
exploration in arid zones can act as a model for other
studies. Aghram Nadharif is a worthy part and in the
tradition of the former “Monographs in Arid Zone
Archaeology”. Thus, I want to use my brief commentary
to recommend the studies of Aghram Nadharif not only
as an introduction to Garamantian archaeology, but
also as a textbook of modern archaeological research
strategy – for Garamantian and Saharan contexts, but
also far beyond. The editor’s promise in the foreword,
of never doing such work again, is a friendly understatement that hopefully will not become reality.
PETER BREUNIG
University of Frankfurt
This volume in the Archaeology of the Libyan
Sahara maintains the superb standard set by its predecessor, Sand, Stones and Bones. The Archaeology
of Death on the Wadi Tannezzuft Valley (edited by
Savino di Lernia and Giorgio Manzi). The work of
the Italo-Libyan Joint Mission in the Tadrart Acacus
has been rightly celebrated for many years, but the
cumulative and summative publication outputs from
the project increasingly put this team on a different
plane from other Saharan archaeologists. The strong
interdisciplinary focus of the work and the size and
range of expertise of the team – well displayed in the
38 chapters of this book – give an impressive depth
to the research carried out. The emphasis on rapid
and full publication is equally laudable (this volume
concerns fieldwork that was only completed in 2002).
In particular, Mario Liverani as director, editor and a
chief author, is to be congratulated for having brought
his project to so triumphant a conclusion.
The work reported on here marks a huge contribution
towards a better understanding of the Saharan peoples
XXVII
PETER BREUNIG, DAVID MATTINGLY
contemporary with the Greco-Roman period. Taken
together with the results of recent work by the Fazzan
Project that I have directed working in the Wadi al-Ajal
area far to the north-east of Ghat, a completely new
light is shed on the civilisation of the Garamantes. The
Wadi al-Ajal constituted the heartlands of the Garamantian kingdom and one of the interests of the Ghat
area is that it was very much a peripheral territory. The
Italo-Libyan Mission’s work thus allows us to compare
and contrast core and periphery in the Garamantian
world. The Garamantes are now firmly established as
the best-documented Saharan people of Classical antiquity and deserve to be taken into fuller consideration
in general studies of African civilisation and archaeology. Nonetheless, published excavations of Garamantian
sites in both zones remain few in number, so the sort
of detailed study presented here is of enormous value.
The site of Aghram Nadarif is an extremely important
example of a fortified village on the fringes of the Garamantian state and the meticulous excavation, survey
and post-excavation work carried out once again set
new standards for Saharan archaeology.
The volume opens with a brief introduction by
Liverani and a series of chapters establishing the
broader context of the site – in terms of landscape
and environment, past research on the Garamantes
in the Ghat area, known cemeteries, topography
and rock art of the Garamantian period (Chapters
2-6). The detailed stratigraphic results from a series
of excavated buildings are then presented (Chapters
7-16), authored by the main supervisors of the specific areas. The fact that the main occupation of the
site concentrates in a few hundred years only of the
Garamantian period, means that the stratigraphy was
relatively simple and the integrity of structural plans
clear – unlike my own excavations at Jarma where
the continuation of occupation at the site has had a
major impact on the preservation of the earliest levels,
through the intercutting of pits and so on. The classic
Garamantian building at Aghram Nadarif consisted of
a two-roomed unit, though a few more complex units
are also attested at the site. There is a seeming level of
homogeneity about the structures, suggesting a relatively undifferentiated society – a point also supported
by the material culture. Here they may be something
of a contrast with the Garamantian heartlands.
Finds from the excavations are treated in full detail
(Chapters 17-27), covering a wide range of ceramic,
lithic and other artefacts – again with a wide range of
authors credited. Although the site was not particularly
rich artefactually, the full reporting of finds is particularly valuable in that the Mediterranean imports (primarily
amphora) can be more fully appreciated in the context
of the local pattern of consumption. The presentation
of palaeoenvironmental results (seeds and bones) is
another valuable section (Chapters 28-29) and will be
an essential complement to the detailed enviromental
understanding built up by the Mission of earlier phases
in the Tanezzuft valley and to the story now established
for the Wadi al-Ajal.
The volume concludes with a series of summative
chapters (30-38), on the dating and history of the site
and on aspects of its socio-economic interpretation.
These latter contributions are all authored by Liverani
and give a coherent and wide-ranging overview of the
results. He is particularly successful in reconnecting
the study of the Barkat oasis by Ghat into a series of
much broader debates about the nature of Garamantian
society and its wider contacts. I especially enjoyed his
insightful discusssions of traditional oasis farming,
Trans-Saharan trade and his modelling of local and regional societies. The erudition and bibliographic range
of the enquiry is most impressive – there can be few
scholars with Liverani’s polymathic knowledge and he
deploys it brilliantly. These concluding discussions make
this far more than a report on a single site – perhaps
a not so very important site within the Garamantian
settlement hierarchy when all is said and done – and
give immense added value to the volume as a contribution to a series of debates about the historiography
and methodology of Saharan archaeology as well as
the large and important ones about the Garamantes
themselves. The book will be widely consulted and read
with great profit by all who have an interest in Saharan
societies, culture and history.
There is much that Liverani and his co-authors
share in common with my team on the Fazzan Project
in terms of understanding about the Garamantes and
their world, though inevitably the project locations
provide a different optic on certain matters. This explains some differences of emphasis or interpretation
– for example, Liverani has a low overall estimate for
Garamantian population based on his observation of
the Barkat oasis being of similar size in antiquity and
in the early twentieth century, whereas my work in the
Wadi al-Ajal suggests that that area was more intensively settled at its Garamantian peak than in the 1930s
when the Italian colonial authorities carried out the first
modern census. These differences of perspective in no
way detract from the value of this work; rather they
enhance it. As more of the results of the Fazzan Project
are published over the next few years, Saharan experts
will have available to them an archive of unparalleled
detail on the structures, palaeoeconomy, environment,
climate, rock art and material culture of this part of the
Central Sahara. The regional differences between the
Ghat area and the al-Ajal close to Jarma will be readily
apparent alongside the cultural similarities that lead us
to characterise the former as part of the Garamantian
polity or koine.
In conclusion, the decision of the Italo-Libyan
Mission to venture into the archaeology of historical
periods – alongside continuing work on the region’s extraordinary prehistory, where it made its international
reputation – has been fully vindicated by this monograph. Aghram Nadharif: The Barkat Oasis (Sha‘abiya of
Ghat, Libyan Sahara) in Garamantian Times is a superb
contribution to Saharan studies and will be a standard
point of reference on all the key debates relating to the
Garamantes (and much else besides) for generations
to come. I congratulate each and every member of the
team who has contributed to this achievement.
DAVID J. MATTINGLY
University of Leicester
XXVIII
COMMENTARIES
Editorial Preface
The Joint Italian-Libyan Archaeological Mission
in the Akakus and Messak (Libyan Sahara), and its
supporting administrative structure the CIRSA (Inter-University Research Centre on the Environment
and Cultures of the Ancient Sahara), based at the
University of Rome “La Sapienza”, were created and
directed for a long period by Prof. Fabrizio Mori.
We are currently celebrating the 50th anniversary of
Mori’s first work in the Akakus. In 1996 Mori, near
retirement, convinced me to take over the direction
of both the mission and the CIRSA. In my memory,
the reasons for accepting this burdensome task are
a complete blank. At that time I had to renounce
research projects in my own field (the history of the
ancient Near East), and begin to tackle a completely
new field in which I was an outsider. Moreover, I had
always carried out my previous research as an isolated
scholar, and even during my (fairly long) involvement
in field archaeology I had always avoided organizational and administrative posts. Eight years after my
appointment (1997) I remain an outsider, although
I have learned many new things, and I am still an
isolated scholar. I owe it to Mauro Cremaschi and
Savino di Lernia if I was able to surmount (at least in
part) the major difficulties.
I suspect that Prof. Mori would have been rather
disappointed to see that his mission, always centred
around prehistoric rock art – the beautiful, elegant,
and meaning-rich rock art of the wild fauna, round
heads and pastoral periods – has also become involved
in the excavation of a poor and crude Garamantian
site. The fact is that my ability to “reinvent” myself was
limited; and – more seriously – that it was important
to cover this “late” period as well, in order to obtain
a more complete reconstruction of the entire history
of the area.
In fact, the historical problems connected with Garamantian civilization were, and still are, in need of
a fresh approach. After the colonialist period, when
the Garamantes were considered a strange and remote
people, only appreciated when influenced by the Roman Empire, and down to the post-colonialist period,
when they remain largely neglected by Africanist
archaeologists and anthropologists, perhaps because
too “white” (or too northern) to be truly African, a
genuine Saharo-centric perspective, so widely and
obviously adopted for prehistoric cultures, hardly
seems acceptable for the proto-historic (pre-Islamic)
period.
Yet the complex cultures and polities located in
the arid belt stretching from Western Africa through
Arabia to Central Asia deserve a study of their own.
“Under western eyes”, this belt forms the periphery
of the Roman empire. In a more correct world-system
perspective, the developments taking place in the
Mediterranean system spread into the neighbouring
systems of the Sahara, of Arabia and of Central Asia
– and vice-versa. As a Westerner myself, I tend to accept that the Mediterranean system was the leading
system in antiquity, in terms of political and socioeconomic complexity. The overall trajectory of rise
and decline of the Saharan polities in antiquity closely
follows developments in the Mediterranean basin. Yet
cultural responses and developments in the Sahara
(and in other arid zones) are quite distinctive and
autonomous, based on local traditions and environmental constraints. This holds true for the irrigation
system and the caravan trade, for tribal organization
and funerary rituals, and so on.
Our excavation in one Garamantian citadel, and
the related study of one Saharan oasis (the Barkat oasis), merely represents a test-contribution within this
broad historical framework. The site has the positive
quality of being not covered by later (medieval) layers,
so that exposure of the Garamantian structures is an
easy task. Yet it has the negative quality of having
been ransacked for a millennium and a half, so that
in situ remains and intact contexts are quite rare. In
many cases, in the absence of a properly stratigraphic
sequence, a statistical approach has been considered
the only possible way of providing the record with
a reasonable meaning. Clearly the exposed parts
of the site (c. 6% of the total) are rather limited,
but the residential units are fairly repetitive (and
no special-purpose building has been identified), so
that continuing the excavation would have led to a
notable decrease in results as compared to costs. We
are confident that our fieldwork has been sufficient
to provide an acceptable picture of an “Early Saharan
village”, a picture that was previously unavailable. In
more general terms, we are confident that our work,
and the parallel work undertaken by the British team
directed by David Mattingly at Jarma, are re-opening
an old chapter in the history of Sahara from a new
perspective and using new methodologies.
A site located mid-way between the Mediterranean
coast and the Sahel belt may be of interest both to
Roman archaeologists and historians, and to African
archaeologists and anthropologists. Moreover, environmental aspects are as relevant as properly cultural
developments. Hence the general strategy of a truly
multi-disciplinary research project. Hence also the
need to explain to scholars of one discipline what is
superfluous to scholars of others. I cannot claim to
have found the correct balance between such diverse
scholarly traditions (personally being biased in favour
of Near Eastern parallels); I only ask to be forgiven
if some parts appear too naive and obvious (or even
outdated) to specialists in one field, remembering that
other specialists are accustomed to other conventions
and other skills – and that what may be routine in some
areas is not yet common practice in others.
XXIX
PETER BREUNIG,
MARIO LIVERANI
DAVID MATTINGLY
An inter-disciplinary research project is obviously
indispensable – and nowadays normal – in dealing
with any archaeological site and its territory, and is the
only way to provide a complete reconstruction of the
historical and environmental setting. Personally trained as a historian, and mostly accustomed to personal
research activities, I have merely tried to do my best in
organizing the project and carrying it out. Of course,
such a complex enterprise should be organized and
directed by a strong and charismatic leader – which I
am not. It has been really hard work to maintain an
acceptable degree of control over different areas of
competence and people trained in different fields and
possessing different habits in research behaviour and
strategy. The same holds true, in more practical terms,
for the planning, assembly and editing of this volume.
Now that the work is concluded, I can only ask for
forgiveness, and promise: I will never do it again.
XXX
MARIO LIVERANI
COMMENTARIES
Acknowledgments
An archaeological mission is always the result of the
effective action of many individuals and institutions.
It is a pleasant duty and an honour to acknowledge
here the debt that the Libyan-Italian Mission (and
in particular its “Garamantian” sub-group) has contracted towards them.
The Libyan authorities must be mentioned first. The
Government of the Great Libyan Jamahiriya allowed
us to work in the country, in the common effort to
reconstruct the ancient history of Libya and obliterate
the negative memory of the Italian colonial past. The
Libyan Ambassador in Rome, ‘Abd el-Ati el-‘Obeidi,
has been hospitable and encouraging on numerous
occasions.
The Department of Antiquities in Tripoli has
always been friendly and cooperative at the highest
levels, and it is a genuine pleasure to thank Muhammad ‘Ali Khadduri, who was the Director General
during the years of the Aghram Nadharif excavation
(1997 to 2001), and the main members of his staff:
Juma Anag (the present Director General), Juma
Garza al-Sifaw, Muhammad Faraj Shakshuki, and
Mustafa Turjuman, for their various important contributions to the positive development and results
of our mission.
The Libyan local authorities in Fezzan and in the
sha‘biya of Ghat deserve a grateful mention too:
from the Ghat governors (especially ‘Abd el-Rahman
el-Ansari) to the local elders, to the archaeological
personnel in charge: ‘Ali ‘Abd es-Salam (now retired)
in Sebha, Sa‘ad ‘Abd el-‘Aziz in Jarma (now in Sebha)
and Muhammad Denda in Ghat.
The Italian Embassy has always been hospitable
and helpful, and it is a pleasure to remember here
the names of the Ambassadors in charge during the
period of the Aghram Nadharif excavation: Fabio
Migliorini and Claudio Pacifico. Without their support
and advice the Mission could not have taken place.
Their staff has also been helpful and sympathetic on
many occasions, and we thank Dr Gianluca Alberini,
Dr. Niccolò Tassoni, and many others.
The necessary financial support was provided by
three institutions. First of all I must thank the University of Rome “La Sapienza” in the persons of its
successive Presidents Giuseppe D’Ascenzo and Renato Guarini; the Committee for Scientific Research
in the persons of the Chairman Renato Cipollini and
especially the member in charge of ancient history
and archaeology, Andrea Giardina; the Deans of the
Faculty of Humanities Paolo Matthiae and Roberto
Antonelli; the Directors of the Department of Antiquities Giovanni Colonna, Letizia Ermini Pani and
Clementina Panella. Officials of the administrative
staff both in the central offices (Dr Anna Candela
and Dr Giovanna Cadeddu) and in the Department
(Dr Bruna Fermani) have always been attentive to
our urgent needs and special requirements.
I wish also to address an especially grateful thought
to the memory of the former President of the University of Rome, Antonio Ruberti, and the former Dean
of Humanities, Luigi De Nardis, who established
the preferential status of the so-called “Grandi Scavi
d’Ateneo” (one of which is our Akakus Mission) – an
enlightened decision that allowed various world-famous archaeological missions to survive and prosper
as long-term projects.
The second funding institution is the Italian Ministry for University and Scientific Research (formerly
MURST, now MIUR), whose co-financing programs
have allowed us to double the University budget. Our
programmes for 1999-2000 (Environment and Culture: Origins of the Caravan System in Arid Lands),
2001-02 (Environment and Culture. Socio-political
Developments in Complex Societies and the Emergence
of State Organization in Arid Zones), and 2003-04
(Nomads and Sedentary People. Climatic Variations,
Population Dynamics, and Cultural Trajectories in Arid
Zones of Africa and Asia during the Holocene) have
been always accepted, thanks to the positive evaluations of half a dozen anonymous referees (mostly
international). I am especially grateful to these anonymous and unknown colleagues, and I hope that this
volume will show them that their expectations have
been positively fulfilled.
The third funding institution is the Italian Ministry
of Foreign Affairs, and I am proud that their contributions, initially more valuable for their political
significance than in monetary terms, have become
more important year after year, as a token of special
appreciation for our work. I take the opportunity to
thank here the former Director General for Cultural
Affairs, Cons. Marco del Panta Ridolfi, and the delegate for archaeology Dr. Alessandra Bertini.
The Italian firm Con.I.Cos. has been very helpful in
providing logistical support (and friendship and sympathy) in Tripoli and in the Tahala camp. We thank in
particular Ing. Aldo Becchio and Rag. Adriano Bottero
in Tripoli, and Franco Castigliola in Tahala.
It is almost superfluous to thank our Libyan colleagues in the Joint Mission, who were internal members of our staff; but since their personal contribution
always went well beyond their professional duty, I am
glad to mention here our friends Ibrahim Saleh Azzebi
(Director of the Libyan component of the Joint Mission), Habib ‘Ali Awn (who mostly worked in Aghram
Nadharif) and ‘Amor Jamali. For shorter periods we
were also helped by Khaleb Abu Jereeda, ‘Amor elBugar, Salah ‘Ali Hatab. Tragically, Habib ‘Ali Awn
will not see the publication of this volume, which is
intended also as a tribute to his memory.
In the same vein I want to thank also the Italian
members of the mission, who not only carried out
splendid professional work, but had also to face my
recurrent depressions and bad temper. The field
XXXI
PETER BREUNIG,
MARIO LIVERANI
DAVID MATTINGLY
work was carried out mainly by Lucia Mori (who
took care also of the general organization), Maria
Carmela Gatto, Caterina Ottomano, Alessandra
Stoppiello, and for shorter periods by Anna Leone,
Giorgio Grassi, Marcella Guidoni and Francesca
Ricci. Giovanni Bertolani and Cristiano Putzolu acted
as surveyors for the site, and Roberto Castelli for
the oasis survey. Mauro Cremaschi carried out the
outer test sounding and the entire geoarchaeological
survey of the area. Daniela Zampetti surveyed the
Garamantian rock art. During one season Roberto
Ceccacci acted as professional photographer. Leonarda De Ninno drew the pottery and the objects in
Rome and in Tahala. In the practical task of editing
this volume, I received help from many people, but
especially from Savino di Lernia and Lucia Mori:
without their advice and assistance the volume could
never have been published.
Other Italian and foreign scholars helped with their
specific skills in various fields of activity, and many of
them are co-authors of this volume with their contributions or as referees. David Mattingly and Peter
Breunig kindly accepted to act as referees for the entire
volume. I would add at least the names of Savino di
Lernia, Elizabeth Fentress, Clementina Panella, René
Rebuffat, for their advice on specific points.
Finally I wish to thank the local people, the inhabitants of Ghat, Fewet and Barkat for their hospitality;
and above all our enthusiastic and skilled workmen,
most of them Tuareg – with the only regret of having
taken too little time to explain them that the civilization whose remains we were recovering is that of
their remote but direct ancestors. But I am sure they
already consider that quite obvious.
XXXII
MARIO LIVERANI
Chapter One
Introduction
MARIO LIVERANI
ABSTRACT: The site of Aghram Nadharif (southern Tanezzuft, Libyan Sahara) is a fortified citadel of the Garamantian period with an
adjacent cemetery. Previous archaeological research in this area on the proto-historical periods has been very scarce and the citadel itself
had never been noticed. The site seems, however, to provide an excellent opportunity, since it is well preserved and easily accessible, and
clearly connected to the one side with the Barkat oasis (providing basic food resources) and to the other with the caravan route following
the Tanezzuft valley and connecting the Mediterranean coast with Central Sudan. The site was excavated during the field campaigns
1997 to 2002 and is published here in its final form.
KEY WORDS: Fortified citadel; Proto-history; Garamantes; Oasis exploitation; Trans-Saharan trade.
1. THE SITE
the outer wall, the ruins of the village are covered by
sand up to the tops of the walls delimiting houses and
rooms. Even before excavation, the general outline
of the settlement was partly visible. We were able to
calculate that the original settlement covered an area
of c. 7000 m2 (more precisely 6890.6 m2), city-wall
included, or c. 6000 wall excluded, c. 2100 of which
were covered, included some 70 houses at maximum,
and hosted an estimated population of c. 260 inhabitants (cf. Chapter 35).
We can divulge that the citadel was directly founded
as a walled city, and lasted some four centuries (c. 50
BC to 350 AD, cf. Chapter 31 for details) until its
abandonment and subsequent collapse and submersion
by wind-blown sand. Obviously, since the ruin remained visible for almost 1700 years, it was subjected
to repeated robbing and ransacking by local people,
and was also used as a night shelter by pastoralists and
travellers. These occasional squatters left many traces
of their presence, mostly in the form of fireplaces and
fences, in addition to garbage and used containers.
Aghram Nadharif (or more accurately Aghram nadharif “the city of alum”)1 is a fortified hilltop village
of the Garamantian period, located on the eastern edge
of the Barkat oasis, in the southern Wadi Tanezzuft
(Libyan Fezzan, ša‘bīya of Ghat), the valley between
the Tadrart Akakus and Tassili mountain ranges (Figs.
1.1-2). The GPS mean coordinates are 24° 53’ 1.33”
N / 10° 12’ 7.05” E. The site can easily be reached by
car, according to the following instructions: (1) take
the main asphalted road from Ghat to Barkat; (2)
before entering Barkat (slightly past an abandoned
petrol station), take an asphalted road heading left,
towards the Akakus, and follow it for c. 1.6 km, up to
the end of the cultivated area; (3) after the last zeriba,
turn right along a track and then left across a sandy
stretch (c. 1 km) separating the track from Aghram
Nadharif, which is visible in the distance.
The ancient site is located on a modest elevation
(Fig. 1.3), a sandstone terrace marking the eastern
margin of the Barkat oasis, and which is cut (on its E
side) by the bed of the Wadi Tanezzuft (Fig. 1.4). To
the east of the wadi bed, the valley bottom is a flat
expanse of serir, without obstacles up to the Akakus
range. Immediately east of the wadi bed, just in front
of the ancient citadel, and extending southwards for
c. 2.7 km, is a large cemetery (Fig. 1.5) containing
c. 600 drum-shaped tumuli. The cemetery is clearly
connected to, and presumably contemporary with,
the settlement.
The site is a walled citadel, of oblong shape (vaguely
reminiscent of a footprint) on the N-S axis, c. 150
metres by 55 (Fig. 1.6). The outer wall is clearly visible from the outside, and a couple of towers are still
preserved to a height of a few metres (Fig. 1.7). Inside
1
2. THE SITE AND THE OASIS
The ancient site dominates both the oasis and the
valley. The Barkat oasis is fairly large, and currently
includes c. 150 hectares of cultivated land and c. 50
hectares of built-up area. The Ikonos satellite image (Pl. I, and cf. Chapter 4) provides an excellent
picture of the present extent of the oasis, as well as
clear evidence that its maximum possible extent is or
was larger, possibly as much as double. We cannot
say, without positive evidence, whether the oasis was
more extensively cultivated in ancient times than it
is nowadays. On the one hand it is clear (Cremaschi
Cf. Prasse 1998: 121 (aγrəm = “ville”) and 390 (ăżarif = “alun”).
1
MARIO LIVERANI
Oasis
Ghat
Ghat, nomads
Tunin
Fewet
Barkat
‘Aweynat
Total
inhabitants
1931
1936
962
1009
553
850
151
188
136
124
616
612
123
287
cultivation types
palms
orchards
7200
86
3680
47
1500
22
9085
94
524
38
2541
21989
3070
water
springs
wells
12
33
12
1
1
6
3
94
58
9
287
86
143
donkeys
47
305
8
13
61
15
449
animal husbandry
sheep-goats
cattle
300
14
1137
25
40
0
100
14
310
35
60
0
1947
88
camels
15
509
4
10
4
27
569
Table 1.I – Demography and economy of the Tanezzuft oases, before modernization
main settlement, flanked by smaller villages in the
oasis proper, or even one of two (or three) similar
settlements. An intensive survey of the entire oasis
and of the related cemeteries (cf. Chapter 4) would
be necessary in order to propose a reasonable answer
to this question. For the moment, only an important
Late Garamantian (?) fortified hilltop site has been
located south of Barkat (site 01 / 60: 24°52’03.1” N;
10°10’57.8” E). Later (Post-Garamantian) periods in
the Barkat oasis are also little known. From historical tradition, we only learn that the qa¡r Tin-Alkem,
easily visible on the main road immediately south of
Barkat, was inhabited by the Kel-Tin-Alkum tribe until
the mid-17th century, when they were dislodged by the
Ilemtin tribe (Duveyrier 1864: 366-367).
Note that popular traditions (quoted in the guidebook by Gandini 1996: 189) about the origin of the
Barkat settlement indicate a twofold subdivision between a genuinely agricultural and a pastoral / trading
settlement and tribe, a kind of dualistic organization
of the urban community that is widespread in the
Sahara (Briggs 1960: 78-80). We get the impression
that our citadel between the oasis and serir can be
considered the forerunner of the pastoral / trading
component, while the forerunner(s) of the horticultural component (in the oasis proper) remain(s) to be
discovered. In any case, since our citadel was in use
during a restricted period of time, namely the “classic”
Garamantian period (c. 50 BC to 350 AD, cf. Chapter 31), more proto-historical settlements (especially
from the “formative” Garamantian period) may exist in or around the Barkat oasis, as yet unidentified
because they are covered by sand dunes or have been
obliterated by the dense and continuous occupation
of the oasis.
in Chapter 2) that the nucleated oasis was the final
result of a progressive concentration (starting from
a large and elongated “Tanezzuft oasis”), and that
therefore a shift from a larger to a more compact oasis
is a reasonable hypothesis in (proto-)historical times
too. On the other hand, the land actually cultivated
at any given time always seems to have been a select
part of the potentially suitable area, in ancient times
as it is today.
The Italian colonial administration recorded (in a
census executed between 1932 and 1936) over 9000
palm trees, 94 orchards, 3 springs and 94 wells, but
only 612 inhabitants (Gigliarelli 1932: 155-161;
Scarin 1937b: 644). It is well-known that the population of the area was somewhat depleted during the
‘30s, as a consequence of the colonial war, so that the
traditional carrying capacity of the Barkat oasis can
be assumed to be higher. Note that the Ghat oasis,
of comparable size and containing a similar number
of palm trees, orchards, and water resources, had a
threefold population of c. 1000 sedentary inhabitants
(Gigliarelli 1932: 155-161; Scarin 1937: 642-643).
A summary of the main data on all the Tanezzuft
oases during the colonial period may be helpful here
(Tab. 1.I).
These data for the colonial period are assumed
to be better comparable to the ancient situation,
whereas current developments are due to technological improvements and to the introduction of
economic activities unknown in antiquity. At present,
although the cultivated area is considerably smaller
than the maximum available, the population is much
larger than in the past. A substantial proportion of
the present population is devoted to local exchange
and administrative (and other) services that in ancient
times had no specialized personnel. The size of the
pre-modern medina (c. 3 hectares) is about five times
that of Aghram Nadharif, but only one fifteenth of
today’s built-up area.
Since the maximum carrying capacity of the Barkat
oasis in early modern and colonial times must have
been similar to that of Ghat, namely over 1000 sedentary inhabitants (Ghat plus Tunin in Tab. 1.I), plus
20% nomads (553 of 2541) living around the oasis,
the estimated inhabitants of Aghram Nadharif (c. 260,
cf. Chapter 35) seem insufficient to fill the potential
carrying capacity in antiquity. We cannot decide a
priori whether Aghram Nadharif was the only settlement in the oasis at a given time, or was simply the
3. THE SITE AND THE TANEZZUFT VALLEY
The connections between the site and the valley are
also significant. It is no coincidence that Aghram Nadharif is located between the oasis and the wadi bed,
and can thus control the main north-south trade route:
nobody could pass through the serir between the wadi
bed and the Akakus piedmont without being sighted
from the walls and towers of Aghram Nadharif. While
the Barkat oasis supplied Aghram Nadharif with basic
subsistence resources (Chapter 32, § 2), the site’s location
on the caravan road provided it with the opportunities
2
CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.1 – Map of Central Sahara, with location of the Wadi Tanezzuft-Akakus area (hatched area = Fig. 1.2).
south-west, across the Tassili, the Hoggar, the Adrar
des Ifoghas, in the general direction of the Niger bend.
The trade network (Mauny 1961; Thiry 1995) will be
discussed in detail in Chapter 37, § 4. See Figure 37.3
for a satellite image of the southern Tanezzuft road
junction and Figure 37.2 for a more general map of
caravan routes in the Central Sahara.
Note that the current (popular) name of the site,
“City of alum”, may also hint at trade: alum was
already traded in the Egyptian oases during Roman
times (Wagner 1987: 306-309), and it was intensively traded throughout the Sahara during Islamic
times. The major source of alum, according to Idrisi
(Levtzion and Hopkins 2000: 123-124, 198), was
the kingdom of Kawar, located immediately south of
Fezzan (Lange 1982; Lovejoy 1986: 59-60). However,
alum deposits are recorded at ‘Aweynat (Serdeles), at
the northern end of the Wadi Tanezzuft, and at Ghat
itself (Duveyrier 1864: 65, 144; Lange and Mauny
1987); the Wadi Wararet, which joins the Tanezzuft
near Ghat, was also known as Aghelad wan-adharif
“the alum gorge” (Duveyrier 1864: 19). In early
modern times, Ghat was an important centre for the
trade of alum towards Egypt and the coast (Thiry
1995: 485-487).
offered by trans-Saharan trade (Chapter 37). The trade
route follows the course of the Wadi Tanezzuft, from
‘Aweynat (Serdeles) to the southern end of the valley, and
is a segment of the great caravan route linking Tripolitania, across Fezzan, with the Sahelo-Sudanese belt.
It seems that Old Ghat is a relatively recent foundation (13th century AD?), never mentioned by medieval
authors (Duveyrier 1864: 267; Ayoub 1968a; Thiry
1995), and that Old Barkat is quite modern (early
19th century AD). However, the Ghat-Barkat complex
– regardless of the precise location of settlements,
which shifted from time to time – is a main road junction, that remained in use throughout the centuries
of recorded (medieval and modern) trans-Saharan
trade (cf. Duveyrier 1864: 266-275; Thiry 1995;
Bernus 1998). From this junction it is possible to go:
(1) northwards through ‘Aweynat and the edheyen
of Ubari to Ghadamis and the coast; (2) north-east
through ‘Aweynat and the Wadi el-Ajal to Sebha and
thence to the coast; (3) eastwards, through the Akakus
passes, to the Wadi Berjuj, Murzuq and Zawila, in the
direction of the oases of Awjila, Jaghbub and Siwa
(ending in the Nile delta or Fayyum); (4) southwards,
past the Tassili / Akakus junction, through the Tenere
desert, in the general direction of the Chad basin; (5)
3
MARIO LIVERANI
But more probably the name of the site (also given
to other, smaller, ruins of similar type) derives from
the idea that these ancient (and highly salinized) ruins
are built in slabs of salt or alum. This idea is already
attested in classical times (e.g. Pliny, Nat. Hist. XXXI
78) and handed down to the Arab historians and geographers. As an example we quote the description
of Taghaza by al-Qazwini: “The ramparts of the city
were of salt and also all its walls, pillars, and roofs.
The doors, too, were made of slabs of salt covered with
leather so that the edges might not crack. All the land
around that town is a salt pan where salt and alum are
mined” (Levtzion and Hopkins 2000: 178).
There were various more specific reasons for selecting Aghram Nadharif as the first settlement to be
dug in the framework of the “Garamantian project”.
(1) The only Garamantian site excavated in recent
decades is Jarma, where the British mission directed
by David Mattingly has recently finished its excellent
fieldwork (preliminary reports: Mattingly et al. 1997,
1998, 1999, 2000, 2001; Mattingly and Mashai
1997, 1998) and started final publication (Mattingly
ed. 2003). However, the Garamantian levels at Jarma
are covered and badly disturbed by the medieval layers above them, so that extensive excavation proved
problematic and the results are relatively disappointing (Mattingly et al. 2001). By contrast (cf. Liverani
2004), Aghram Nadharif provides the unique opportunity of a Garamantian settlement without later
superpositions of relevance, making it possible and
“easy” to excavate extensively and to recover the
town layout. (2) While Jarma is the core (the capital
city) of the Garamantian kingdom, Aghram Nadharif
provides the opportunity to extend our knowledge
of the Garamantes towards their southern border,
and to study the organization of the border itself
(preliminary treatment in Liverani 2000b; 2003a).
(3) The location of Aghram Nadharif between the
oasis and the caravan route provides the opportunity
to obtain information on the trans-Saharan trade
system (preliminary treatment in Liverani 2000c;
2003b) – once again complementing the Jarma area
where the agricultural and irrigation systems (the
foggara) are most visible2.
4. THE GARAMANTIAN PROJECT
Despite its visibility, the Garamantian settlement
of Aghram Nadharif has not been the subject of any
archaeological research before our. In fact, the entire
Wadi Tanezzuft area had just occasionally formed the
subject for historical archaeology (Gatto, Chapter 3).
When I went to the Ghat area for the first time in
1997, I was willing to broaden the activities of the
Italian-Libyan mission to the historical period, not
only for personal reasons (being more at ease with
historical archaeology than with prehistory), but also
with the scientific objective of obtaining a more complete record of the history and cultural heritage of the
area, at least in pre-Islamic times. The site of Aghram
Nadharif was indicated to me by Mohammed Denda,
the deputy of the Department of Antiquities for the
Ghat area, and we visited the site together. I am deeply
grateful to Mohammed Denda for his suggestion,
and for his enthusiastic encouragement and support
throughout our work at Aghram Nadharif.
Once the site had been identified, it became one of
the priorities for our Garamantian sub-project within
the multi-disciplinary and multi-period project of the
Akakus mission in general. The “Garamantian project”
was formulated from the outset (1997) according to
the following purposes, that still retain much of their
general validity: (1) To recover remains of the Garamantian period in the Ghat-Barkat area, which has
remained virtually unexplored (and totally unexplored
in the last 50 years); (2) To investigate the shift from
the Late / Final Pastoral periods to the Garamantian
periods, in order to fill a substantial gap in the archaeology of Fezzan, c. 1500 to 500 BC; (3) To outline the
relationships of the Garamantian kingdom with neighbouring states and peoples, both on the Mediterranean
coast and in the Sahelo-Sudanese belt; (4) To improve
understanding of the new economic organization set
up by the Garamantes, and including both traditional
(mainly pastoral) and innovative activities (intensive
agriculture, long distance trade) (Report 1998: 252;
cf. now Liverani 2005).
5. THE EXCAVATION
We have conducted five excavation seasons in Aghram Nadharif. The first campaign, during the 1997
fieldwork season (cf. Report 1998), from November
15th to December 23rd, was carried out by a team
including (on the Italian side) myself, Dr Lucia Mori
and Dr Marcella Guidoni, and (on the Libyan side)
our colleagues from the Department of Antiquities in
Tripoli, Habib Ali Awn (restorer), Khaled Abu Jereeda
(restorer), and Amur el-Bugar (photographer). Part of
the campaign was devoted to a sounding in Old Ghat
(Report 1998: 252-253), so that work in Aghram
Nadharif actually lasted only one week. During this
short period we excavated room AN1 in its entirety,
and part of lane AN2.
The second campaign, during the 1999 fieldwork
season (cf. Report 1999), from January 25th to March
8th, was carried out by a team including (on the Italian
side) myself, Dr Lucia Mori (archaeologists) and Dr
Giovanni Bertolani (surveyor), and (on the Libyan
side) Salah Ali Hatab (archaeologist). During the 1999
campaign we were able to complete the excavation
On the British “Fazzan Project” cf. Edwards, Hawthorne, Dore and Mattingly 1999; Mattingly 2000; for its complementarity to our
“Akakus Project” cf. Liverani 2004.
2
4
area
excavated
surface
excavated
volume
AN1-2-3
AN4
AN5 / 7-6
AN8-14
AN9-13
AN10-15-28
AN11-12
AN16
AN17-18-19
AN20-21-22
AN24
AN25
AN26-27
36.00
27.00
25.00
23:00
15:00
c. 28.00
73.00
c. 16.50
19.50
28.00
21.50
19.00
20.00
34.72
10.61
20.51
10.33
12.01
c. 15.00
41.15
c. 9.00
20.40
31.92
8.83
13.16
10.20
Total
351.50
237.84
work days
n.
m³ / day
22
1.58
6
1.77
15
1.37
15
0.69
14
0.86
--28
1.47
8
1.125
15
1.36
21
1.52
6
1.77
8
1.64
4
2.55
samples
total
per m³
63
1.81
19
1.79
35
1.71
20
1.94
17
1.42
0
85
2.07
3
0.33
8
0.39
53
1.66
6
0.68
21
1.60
1
0.10
objects
total
per m³
199
5.73
76
7.16
110
5.36
97
9.39
57
4.74
18
1.20
50
1.22
2
0.22
128
6.27
179
5.61
29
3.28
87
6.61
24
2.35
potsherds
total
per m³
1113
32.06
192
18.10
387
18.87
334
32.33
158
13.16
207
13.80
514
12.49
0
257
12.60
1038
32.52
95
10.76
376
28.57
90
8.82
bones
total
per m³
318
9.16
18
1.70
54
2.63
92
8.91
50
4.16
75
5.00
114
2.77
0
183
8.97
461
14.44
94
10.64
104
7.90
68
6.67
162
331
1056
4761
1631
1.47
1.39
4.44
20.02
6.86
Table 1.II – Excavated volumes and their contents, by area
layers
excavated volume
recent fills
medieval reuse
collapse layers
floor layers
81.00
7.93
116.68
16.27
total
37
18
202
74
Total
221.88
331
samples
per m³
0.46
2.27
1.73
4.55
1.49
total
227
50
715
55
1047
objects
per m³
2.80
6.31
6.13
3.38
4.72
potsherds
total
per m³
1338
16.52
98
12.36
2603
22.31
501
30.79
total
395
37
864
256
per m³
4.88
4.67
7.40
15.73
4540
1552
6.99
20.46
bones
Table 1.III – Excavated volumes and their contents, by layer
of AN2, fully excavate AN3, partly excavate AN5,
AN6 and AN7, and start the excavation of AN4. A
topographic survey of the settlement was carried out
by Dr Savino di Lernia, Dr Giovanni Bertolani and
myself, using an ETS (electronic total station) and a
dedicated computer program. In addition, Dr Francesca Ricci (physical anthropologist) and Dr Giorgio
Grassi (geo-archaeologist) excavated one tumulus in
the cemetery. The publication of this tumulus is not
included in the present volume, awaiting for further
work in the Aghram Nadharif cemetery.
The third campaign, during the 2000 fieldwork
season (cf. Report 2000), from January 19th to March
14th, was carried out by a team including (on the Italian
side) myself, Dr Lucia Mori, Dr Anna Leone and Dr
Alessandra Stoppiello (archaeologists), and Dr Giovanni
Bertolani (surveyor). During the 2000 campaign we
were able to complete the excavation of AN5, AN6
and AN7 (Mori), and fully excavate AN8 and AN14
(Mori), AN9 and AN13 (Liverani), and AN11 and
AN12 (Leone and Stoppiello). The computer-generated
map of the site, prepared during the previous campaign,
was further refined by Bertolani and Liverani.
The fourth campaign, during the 2001 fieldwork
season (cf. Report 2001), from January 20 th to
March 3rd, was carried out by a team including (on
the Italian side) Dr Lucia Mori, Dr Maria Carmela
Gatto (archaeologists), Dr Caterina Ottomano (geoarchaeologist), Dr Cristiano Putzolu (surveyor),
and (on the Libyan side) Habib Ali Awn (restorer).
During the 2001 campaign we were able to excavate
AN16, AN17, AN18 and AN19 (Ottomano); AN20,
AN21 and AN22 (Gatto); AN24, AN25 and AN26
(Mori). AN23, immediately beneath the high tower,
was left unexcavated for precautionary reasons. A
new survey of the settlement was carried out and
a new map produced (Putzolu) using an ETS; the
excavated areas were fully covered by orthorectified
digital photographs.
The fifth campaign, during the 2002 fieldwork
season (cf. Report 2002), from January 22nd to February 27th, was carried out by a team including (on
the Italian side) myself, Dr Lucia Mori and Dr Maria
Carmela Gatto (archaeologists), Dr Caterina Ottomano (geo-archaeologist), and Dr Cristiano Putzolu
(surveyor), and (on the Libyan side) Habib Ali Awn
(restorer). During this campaign, mostly devoted to
the excavation of Fewet (cf. Castelli et al. 2005), work
was limited to the clearance, over a few days, of AN4
and AN24 (Mori), AN21 (Liverani and Gatto), and
AN12 (Ottomano), in order to fill some gaps in the
excavated area.
To sum up, apart from the 1997 sounding (one
week of work) and the 2002 operation (a few days),
genuine excavation campaigns in Aghram Nadharif
number only three (1999, 2000, 2001); the total
amount of fieldwork can be calculated as not exceeding c. 80 working days in all. A statistical presentation of excavated areas and volumes, working days,
samples and archaeological finds is provided in Tab.
5
MARIO LIVERANI
Figure 1.2 – Satellite image of the Wadi Tanezzuft.
6
Figure 1.3 – Aghram Nadharif, general view.
1.II; its adaptation to the different relevance of the
stratigraphic units can be appreciated in Tab. 1.III
(whose totals are slightly different from those of the
preceding table, because a few units in open spaces
could not be attributed to specific horizons).
Since the top of the walls was visible before excavation, the recording of the stratigraphic units followed
a separate numbering for each “room” (o open area)
– according to the pattern AN1.1, AN1.2, etc.; AN2.1,
AN2.2, etc. – in order to facilitate memorization. The
entire fill was personally dug by the archaeologists,
apart from the huge sand accumulation in AN16 and
AN12 (upper layers) that was removed by workmen.
As everybody excavating in a sand matrix knows very
well, the stratigraphic units can be distinguished, but
the removal of sand unavoidably mixes up the interfaces. Therefore, recourse to sieving (both in the field
and at home) was limited to specific points, for the rest
being irrelevant the retrieval of a few minute objects
of uncertain provenience.
The publication of the excavated areas has been
entrusted, whenever possible, to the area supervisors
in charge (Chapters 6-17). The publication of the
archaeological materials has been entrusted to Gatto
(local pottery: Chapter 17) and Mori (stone objects:
Chapters 20-21). “Roman” artefacts have been entrusted to Felici (pottery: Chapter 18) and Munzi
(coin: Chapter 26).
ruins. We were lucky enough to be working at a time
of improved technology, making it possible to accomplish quickly tasks that a few years ago would have
required a much longer time. Our team was provided
from the beginning, or became so in the course of time,
with satellite images (firstly Landsat, eventually highresolution Ikonos), that made wide-range location and
spatial analysis possible (no topographical maps or
aerial photographs being available); with GPS, ETS,
and finally DGPS, making the mapping of the entire
settlement possible, and facilitating the recording of
the excavated units; with digital cameras that made the
recording of horizontal and vertical features relatively
fast (in comparison with traditional hand-drawing);
and of course with computers equipped with the necessary programs (cf. Putzolu in Chapter 5).
Advanced technology was also used for the analysis
of the materials recovered, as is common practice in
archaeological excavations: from AMS radiocarbon
dates (Geochron Laboratories, cf. Chapter 30, §§ 1
and 4), to thin sections of sediment, bricks, and of
pottery, to physical and chemical analyses. This is
especially characteristic of our activity, since CIRSA
was founded (in 1992) with the specific purpose of
making inter-disciplinary activities not only a theoretical principle, but also common daily practice. In
particular, many specialist colleagues who were not
(or only occasionally) at work in the site, provided
their competence in the fields of geo-morphology
(Cremaschi, Chapter 2), archaeobotany (Mercuri et
al., Chapter 28), archaeozoology (Alhaique, Chapter
29), archaeometry of pottery (Artioli et al., Chapter
19), wear marks (Lemorini, Chapter 23; Cristiani,
Chapter 24), residue analysis (Bruni and Guglielmi,
Chapter 22), iron slag (Vidale, Chapter 25). A discussion of the contribution made by rock carvings
and paintings to an understanding of Garamantian
settlement and technology (Zampetti, Chapter 6) has
6. TECHNICAL EQUIPMENT
AND INTER-DISCIPLINARITY
Throughout our work we had to face the logistic
problems of the difficult desert environment, and the
specific archaeological problems of digging (and recovering stratigraphy) in the loose sand covering the
7
MARIO LIVERANI
Figure 1.4 – Ikonos satellite image of Aghram Nadharif and surroundings.
been added. The historical interpretation of the site
(Chapters 30-38) has been entrusted to Liverani as
director of the excavation.
in 2002 we moved our major work to Fewet (Castelli
et al. 2005), in order to acquire new information on a
site that is different in typology (an agricultural compound) and date (c. three centuries older than Aghram
Nadharif). Following the same line of reasoning, we
hope to be able (and lucky enough), in the near future,
to identify and excavate additional sites, possibly of
different typology (such as desert castles)3 and / or of
earlier date – in order to obtain more differentiated
knowledge of material culture and settlement pattern
also in the formative period of the Garamantian culture
and its emergence from the Final Pastoral horizon.4
The expected clarification of the entire course of
Garamantian history will shed additional light on the
interpretation of the Aghram Nadharif citadel.
7. FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
Further work is of course possible: the excavated
area only covers 6 % of the total area of the settlement. However, the repetitive pattern of the units,
rooms and lanes makes it easy to predict that the rate
of improvement in our knowledge would decrease
rapidly and substantially – making it wiser to spend
our (always limited) resources on different sites within
the framework of the same general project. Therefore
The Imassarajen castle (cf. Chapter 36, § 4.2) is being published by Biagetti et al., forthcoming.
The same set of problems has already been faced, in the realm of funerary archaeology, by the team directed by Savino di Lernia, cf.
his final publication di Lernia and Manzi (eds.) 2002.
3
4
8
Figure 1.5 – The cemetery of Aghram Nadharif, as seen from the citadel, with the Akakus in the background.
Figure 1.7 – Remains of a tower, from inside.
Figure 1.6 – Ikonos satellite image of Aghram Nadharif.
studies) which should be fully exploited. For the time
being, a detailed mapping and recording operation, and
a study of typology are scheduled, on the model of what
has already been done in the Fewet cemetery (Castelli
and Liverani 2005); the possibility of a selective excavation remains open. A more ambitious project would
be to study the many cemeteries located all around
the Barkat Oasis (Fig. 4.1), in order to reconstruct the
entire history of the area during the Garamantian and
post-Garamantian periods.
As for the cemetery, a large burial field including c.
600 tumuli (Chapter 4), this deserves a project (and
possibly a publication) of its own. It is true that virtually
all the graves have been either robbed or excavated (by
Leschi), and it is unlikely that any intact burials remain
to be found. Yet the connection between cemetery and
citadel provides an opportunity (e.g. for demographic
9
MARIO LIVERANI
What remains to be done in Aghram Nadharif is
restoration work: consolidation of the excavated
stone walls, removal of the sand dunes entering the
settlement, removal of the discharge sands from the
eastern slope, preparation of the site for visitors. This
is not an archaeological activity as such, aiming at the
improvement of scientific knowledge, but aims to
protect the site from natural and human decay, and
to make it accessible to visitors (local people, tourists
and scholars). This aspect of the Aghram Nadharif
operation falls to the Libyan authorities and requires
substantial and specific resources and skills: we hope
that this part of the work will be accomplished within
the framework of the Akakus Archaeological Park
project (Cremaschi et al. 2000; Liverani 2006).
Finally, it is worth suggesting that Aghram Nadharif
would be an excellent site for a field school, i.e. for the
archaeological training of Libyan students. The residential modules are similar enough, and the general
history of the site is by now well enough understood,
to make it possible to organize an extensive dig, with
many students supervised by a few archaeologists and
surveyors. This would also be the only way to dig the
entire citadel over the course of a few years – a target
that, although not a priority for the advancement of
scientific knowledge, would certainly be an effective
way to finally prepare the site for visitors within the
framework of the Akakus Archaeological Park.
10
COLOUR PLATES
CHAPTER 1 – LIVERANI
Plate I – Ikonos satellite image of the Barkat oasis.
465
CHAPTER
CHAPTER2 1– –CREMASCHI
LIVERANI
Plate II – The Quaternary geology of the southern part of the Tanezzuft Valley. (1) Tassili sandstone (Silurian) eroded in
the shape of a pediment; (2) Tanezzuft shales (Upper Silurian) dissected in bad lands; (3) red sand (RS) formation (Middle-Upper Pleistocene); (4) slope deposits and alluvial fan, mostly gravel (F1-F2-F3) (Middle-Early Holocene); (5) fine
swamp deposits rich in organic matter, Unit 1(Early-Middle Holocene); (6) gravel, Unit 2 (Early Holocene); (7) alluvium,
Unit 3 (Middle-Late Holocene); (8) recent Wadi Tanezzuft deposits, Unit 4 (Late Holocene); (9) yellow sand (YS) dune
formation, Unit 5 (Late Holocene); (10) Barkat alluvial fan; (11) archaeological sites.
466
CHAPTER
LIVERANI
Plate III – Holocene geology and geomorphology in the surroundings of Barkat. (1) swamp deposits, Unit 1; (2) gravel,
Unit 2; (3) alluvial deposits, Unit 3; (4) sub-recent deposits of the Wadi Tanezzuft, Unit 4; (5) Barkat alluvial fan; (6) canyon;
(7) branches of the Wadi Tanezzuft: 1 western, 2 central, 3 eastern; (8) tethering stones; (9) archaeological sites.
467
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LIVERANI
Plate IV – Meander bars, composed of gravel dating back to the Early Holocene. Wadi Tanezzuft, Tahala, north of Kaf
al-Jinun.
468
CHAPTER
LIVERANI
Plate V – Archaeological Sites (of the Epipalaeolithic, Mesolithic and Pastoral periods), tethering stones and radiocarbon
dates in the Tanezzuft Valley, from geoarchaeological surveys during field seasons 1999-2003. (1) Radiocarbon dated sites
in geological deposits; (2) archaeological sites: clusters of fireplaces; (3) tethering stones.
469
CHAPTER
LIVERANI
Plate VI – Changes in size of the Tanezzuft oasis. (1) Extent of the late 6th millennium oasis; (2) extent of the 4th-3rd millennium
oasis; (3) extent of the 2nd millennium oasis: at this time Fewet, Ghat, Barkat and Esseyen are already separated.
470
CHAPTER
LIVERANI
Plate VII – Distribution of the archaeological sites in the southern Tanezzuft Valley. (1) Pastoral sites; (2) Garamantian
sites; (3) tethering stones. Number of the sites refer to Tab. 2.I.
471
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CHAPTER
CHAPTER261–––CREMASCHI
ZAMPETTI
LIVERANI
Plate VIII – Distribution map of the Garamantian rock art sites.
472
CHAPTER
ZAMPETTI
CHAPTERS
7-14
LIVERANI
CHAPTER
261––––CREMASCHI
CHAPTER
LIVERANIET ALII
Plate IX (a) – Three-dimensional reconstruction of the model-house AN1-3.
Plate IX (b) – Three-dimensional reconstruction of the small quarter around lane AN10, with the ramp leading up to the city
wall, the courtyard AN25 and the house AN9-13 on its left, and the house AN8-14 and the stores AN5 / 7-6 on its right.
473
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CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
261–17
––CREMASCHI
ZAMPETTI
LIVERANI
– GATTO
a
b
d
c
e
f
Plate X – The local pottery: (a) examples of impressed decoration; (b) examples of incised decoration; (c) examples
of applications; (d) examples of painted potsherds; (e) examples of decoration obtained with combined techniques;
(f) incised and painted cup from AN11.
474
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CHAPTER
––CREMASCHI
ZAMPETTI
–LIVERANI
GATTO
CHAPTER
19 2–61–17
ARTIOLI
ET ALII
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
a
b
c
Plate XI – (a) XRPD patterns of the internal part (blue curve) and of the surface ochre layer (red curve) of sample AN 22 / 3.
(b) Ternary diagram of the major mineral components of the Aghram Nadharif ceramics: plotted data are renormalized
quartz, mica and feldspar wt %. Blue, red, and magenta circles refer to F, C, and CC ceramics respectively. The green
triangle refers to sample AN2 / 7, containing abundant melitite and pyroxene. (c) Ternary diagram of chemical components:
plotted data are renormalized SiO2-Fe2O3-CaO oxide wt %. Blue, red, and magenta circles refer to F, C, and CC ceramics
respectively. The Ca-silicate rich sample AN2 / 7 is marked with a triangle. The melitite containing samples AN2 / 8 and
AN12 / 1 are marked with squares.
475
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
192–61–17
ARTIOLI
––CREMASCHI
ZAMPETTI
LIVERANI
– GATTO
ET ALII
a
b
c
d
e
Plate XII – Archaeometry of the local pottery: (a) Example of ceramic fragment (sample AN22 / 3) with a reddish-ochre
layer on the internal surface (right). The outer surface (left) shows no signs of the pigment layer. (b) Detail of the surface
of sample AN2 / 2 showing traces of plant parts used as temper in the ceramic paste. (c-d-e) SEM backscattered electron
photographs of plant microfeatures in the ceramic matrix of samples AN3 / 3 (c) and AN22 / 3 (d); OM image of a plant
stem in sample AN4 / 1 (e).
476
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CHAPTER
CHAPTER
19 2–61–17
ARTIOLI
––CREMASCHI
ZAMPETTI
–LIVERANI
GATTO
ET ALII
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
a
b
c
d
Plate XIII – OM images of thin sections. (a) Sample ANsurf / 2 in plane-polarized (left) and cross-polarized light (right). The
F-type ceramic paste shows black glassy matrix, a number of cracks and sub-rounded voids, a large fraction of fine grained
inclusions, mostly quartz, and a small number of mm-sized calcite crystals. (b) Sample AN2 / 1 in plane-polarized (left) and
cross-polarized light (right). The C-type ceramic paste shows dark brown glassy matrix, more reddish at the surface of the
sherd (leftmost part of the image), a number of cracks, a portion of medium-grained inclusions, and a small number of
mm-sized grains of heterogeneous composition. (c) AN2 / 6 in plane-polarized (left) and cross-polarized light (right). The
C-type ceramic paste shows reddish glassy matrix, a number of cracks and rounded voids, a portion of medium-grained
inclusions, and a small number of mm-sized grains of quartz and grog. (d) Sample AN6 / 1 in plane-polarized (left) and
cross-polarized light (right). The CC-type ceramic paste shows dark glassy matrix, large cracks and voids, a portion of
medium-grained rounded inclusions, and a number of mm-sized subangular grains of polycrystalline quartz.
477
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
192–61–17
ARTIOLI
––CREMASCHI
ZAMPETTI
LIVERANI
– GATTO
ET ALII
Paste
typology
Description
L1
Paste with abundant sand
inclusions, average grain size.
(type material: sample AN2 / 2)
L2
Rather compact paste with fine
grain size, scarce small
inclusions, no porosity.
L3
Fine paste with heterogeneous grain size, scarce
inclusions, little porosity.
Example of type material
Paste with average grain size, scarce sand
inclusions, a number
of soft inclusions of white material,
average porosity.
(type material: sample ANsurf / 2)
L4
• subclass L4-F has bot fine sand and fine white
inclusions
• subclass L4-C has coarser inclusions of sand,
white material, and grog
• subclass L4-CC has coarser inclusions
of sand and white material
Plate XIV – Typological description of the ceramic pastes L1-L4.
478
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
19 2–61–17
ARTIOLI
––CREMASCHI
ZAMPETTI
–LIVERANI
GATTO
ET ALII
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
Paste
typology
Description
Example of type material
Paste with coarse grain size,
abundant sand inclusion,
high porosity.
L5
• subclass L5-F has sand inclusions
of average grain size
• subclass L5-C has sand inclusions
of average grain size,
plus grog inclusions
L6
Paste with average grain size,
abundant sand inclusions
and visible plant inclusions,
high porosity.
L7
Fine paste with fine grain size,
scarce sand inclusions,
scarce grog inclusions,
little porosity.
L8
Fine paste with fine grain size,
scarce sand inclusions,
little porosity.
(type material: sample ANtum / 1)
Plate XV – Typological description of the ceramic pastes L5-L8.
479
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CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
192–61–17
ARTIOLI
––CREMASCHI
ZAMPETTI
LIVERANI
– GATTO
ET ALII
Grain size
class
Grain size distribution diagram
OM image
F
(fine)
C
(coarse)
CC
(coarse,
with large
inclusions)
Plate XVI – Grain size distribution of the Aghram Nadharif ceramics as resulting from the computerized image analysis.
Three classes have been defined (F, C, CC). For each class it is reported: (a) the column diagram showing the quantitative evaluation of each grain size fraction, and (b) the OM image of a thin section of a potsherd presenting the typical
appearance of each class.
480
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AZA 5.indb - All`Insegna Del Giglio

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